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26 SEPTEMBER 1976

Technical Alpine Climbing
For Two-Person Teams
by CAMERON McPHERSON SMITH

copyright 1996

PART I
TECHNICAL SKILLS AND EQUIPMENT
Adapting General Skills and Equipment to Alpine Conditions

INTRODUCTION

Strictly defined, alpine climbing involves ascending rock, ice and snow above timberline; this is a dull definition and what is more important to consider is that Alpine climbing is always characterized by one feature: Adventure, and I mean with a capital A! What, then, is Adventure ? It is facing the unknown; entering an arena in which you're certain of nothing but your own skills and ingenuity. You must react to unforeseen phenomena, you brain constantly doing precisely what it has evolved to do - store and process new and old information, and control the body based on the immediate environment. Adventure is using the mind and body together to overcome unexpected challenges, and this is often exactly what alpine climbing is all about.
Many climbers today go to a lot of trouble to control their climbing environment, 'cleaning' and preparing routes, perhaps even creating artificial holds, or limiting their climbing to mapped and manicured areas. Some seek progressively less control and others actively seek out the uncontrollable. On one end of the 'control spectrum' one can discern the absolutes of an indoor rock-gym, the certainty of a bolted crag and the reliance on detailed guides to specific routes. Somewhere in the middle you find the lesser surety of a larger, infrequently climbed route, though the route is normally within range of rescue. Further along the spectrum, control, responsibility and certainty shift from the conditions, technology and environment to the climber. This is the realm of alpine climbing. The alpinist has a general idea of the route, but such 'absolutes' as difficulty and a detailed route description are ephemeral, riding seasonal tides.
As an alpinist you must decide when and where it is prudent to make a subtle - or extreme - deviation from the 'plan'. You must do your own work, not relying on other peoples' efforts; the prospect of rescue is remote, and you climb with precisely this in mind. You and your partner are isolated. You are lightly equipped and survive by directing your technology as you see fit. You encounter bizarre natural shapes. Some are obstacles, others are fortuitous acquaintances. Alternately you suffer and are elated. Most often you begin alpinism wanting to repeat others' achievements, or attain some arbitrary technical grade. Eventually, technical grades lose all meaning as you become more interested in the experience of the climb. Surviving the ordeal becomes the first priority.
It's apparent that the very nature of alpine ascents is such that no standard formula for success can be devised. Alpine climbs change from season to season, from week to week, day to day. What is an easy rock buttress as you climb out of your snow-cave in the morning can, by evening, turn into a nerve-grinding test of balance and courage; courage to go on, or courage to retreat. As an alpinist you subject yourself to dangers such as rockfall and avalanche which can be estimated and respected, but never controlled. No matter how good a climber you are, an avalanche can blink you out of life in an instant. The way to avoid such a useless fate is to stay safe; if the conditions are bad, you'll retreat, or stay clear the route in the first place. You'll get home, wish you could have done the climb, and sink into a hot bath happy to be alive. Better luck next time.
Alpine climbing can be divided into at least two 'fields'; the non-technical and the technical. A non-technical ascent generally involves problems of physical exertion and objective dangers such as rockfall and avalanche. However physically difficult and objectively dangerous, there is little climbing requiring specialized techniques. Ropework and means of ascent are somewhat standardized and rather simple. Still, there is little or no control of the climbing environment. Non-technical alpine climbing is often refereed to as mountaineering.
Technical alpine climbing, on the other hand, involves special climbing and rope techniques. Put simply, it involves the adaptation of steep rock-climbing techniques to icy or otherwise difficult rock, steep ice and steep snow. It includes the physical exertion and objective dangers of mountaineering, but requires more of the climber in terms of varied ability.
This book is intended to introduce you to the skills required of the technical alpinist. By 'you' I mean either the sport-climber who finds that they want some adventure, the traditional rock-climber who wants to experience something new, the mountaineer who has tired of snow-slogs and is itching for some technical climbing or the novice who is interested in the whole enterprise. However, you must get some basic skills in alpine climbing under your belt before setting off on technical routes. In this book I don't introduce the basic alpine skills of rock, snow and ice climbing; what I do is introduce methods for the initiated to use on more difficult climbs in small, lightweight, two-person teams. To get the proper background, consider a basic skills course, or go out with a partner and teach yourselves. It's up to you to become proficient at the basics, something which takes time and effort.
By 'you' I also mean the average climber. The non-average climber won't need this book, as they can climb daily or at least very frequently and teach themselves while they teach others. Most of us, however, can only get out on some weekends and on holidays, and thus spend a lot of time trying very hard to cram in as much as possible, loading the car and speeding off with some damned appointment nagging at us all the time. Some will eventually quit the rat-race and climb full-time. Most, however, won't, and it's to the 'most' that I address this book.
The book is organized in three sections. The first tells you how to adapt standard rock-climbing and mountaineering skills and equipment to more technical alpine conditions. The second section introduces some of the dangers of alpine climbing, suggests how to plan for them, and introduces some clothing and gear needed by the alpinist. The third section discusses situations you may encounter and how you may deal with them when traveling in a lightweight, lightly equipped two-person alpine team.
The overall philosophy of this book is that alpinists must be self-reliant and adaptable. 'Safety margins', as I see them, are to be determined by the climbers themselves, just as the individual should pursue goals of their own creation, not grades or difficulties established by someone else. I also believe the alpinist must climb with an ethic in mind, with free reign to do as they please so long as they do not damage the natural environment, or mar the experience of other climbers. Finally, I stress that it's better to come home alive than dead. I don't think anyone will argue with me there.
Climbing Ethics and Environmental Ethics
Ethics are a part of climbing as they are a part of every aspect of our actions. With some aspects of the climbing ethic you have a bit of latitude for decision, as when you consider how much risk you want to take before backing off, or asking yourself 'how much technology can I personally justify to overcome this difficulty?'. At the heart of the climbing ethic, however, lies the specific question of whether you have the right to diminish the potential climbing experience of other climbers. To be blunt, you do not. As in any issue of personal freedom, you should be free to do as you please, so long as you do not compromise the rights of others. In climbing, this boils down to not damaging permanent features (usually rock) by placing bolts or using scar-creating pitons unless absolutely necessary. There is more leeway with pitons than with chopped holds, as pitons may be the only way to use a natural feature, whereas a chopped hold is totally unnatural. This assumes that natural is right, and I accept this assumption. Use your technology to take advantage of natural features; do not create new ones. The exception is bolts, where it may be impossible to use anything else as a belay anchor. In this case you must ask yourself if you're willing to damage the rock by bolt placement.
When dealing with the environmental ethic there is far less leeway for contemplation. We must respect and protect the natural environment we live in. It only takes a thinking person a few moments to realize that we simply cannot justify trashing our wild places, however remote they may seem. It's true that sometimes it's necessary to leave hardware on a climb, and this is worth considering, but at the most basic level here I am talking about packing out your trash. Only the lowest, cretinous idiots leave wrappers or other debris (broken tools etc.) on a climb, and I suggest you be vocal about such actions as you encounter them and their perpetrators.
Having said all this, we can turn to Part I and discuss how the basic skills of the mountaineer or rock-climber can be adapted to alpine conditions.

CHAPTER 1
ALPINE ROCK CLIMBING
Skills Needed by the Alpine Rock Climber
and
Making the Transition to Alpine Climbing

Rock climbing is the basic alpine skill. Unless you go out of your way to avoid it, you will spend much of your alpine adventure on rock. Some will be excellent, some will be rotten and terrifying - you must be prepared to deal with it all, and to this end you will have to practice on varied terrain.
If you are a rock-climber who wants to get into alpine climbing you'll find that you already posses a number of valuable skills. Personally, I think that it's best for a climber to become competent on rock before taking up alpine climbing. The reasons for this will become obvious as this chapter unfolds. The experienced rock-climber knows how to arrange secure anchors, set up belays, manage ropes and generally move upward and downward on steep terrain. Although these skills can be learned in an alpine setting, there are a number of reasons why one should begin with rock closer to home. First and foremost, the stakes in rock-climbing are lower. If you make a serious mistake at a local practice crag - even if you're injured - chances are pretty good that you will survive. An ambulance can be called and you can be picked up relatively quickly. The same cannot be said for a person who makes the same mistake 9,000 feet up a mountain in poor weather.
If you're a fair-weather climber thinking about starting alpine climbing you should be prepared for a few things. If you can't stand to be cold, or can't get used to it, or don't want to get used to it, you should probably forget alpine climbing. There are a few warm days, and there are a lot of 'warm' clothes on the market, but for much of the time you'll still be half-frozen. At some time you'll suffer a three-hour belay as your partner battles above and icicles form on your crampons. At some time your hands will go totally numb, only to be revived in the most agonizing pain. Still, you may like it. You may even appreciate the pain as a clear signal that you are still amongst the living. Or, you may hate the cold every time, but find that the rewards of alpine climbing far outweigh the discomforts (strangely, after a while it becomes possible for you to call horrible pain 'discomfort').
If you don't have a good background in 'fiddling' rock protection you should spend some time learning to do so - placing protection in unlikely places, taking maximum advantage of odd features. Try the unusual tricks you've heard of, such as stacking nuts, lodging knotted cord in cracks as protection, opposing nuts, tying off horizontal camming units, stacking pitons and so on. A number of these techniques are illustrated in Fig. XX, though a whole book could be written on the subject. Without question, technology is an important part of the game: but the more important parts are imagination and curiosity. Alpine climbing is all about the unknown and the unexpected. You must be prepared to cope with a variety of less than ideal situations.
If you've done a lot of rock-climbing and you're dedicated to a particular type of climbing ('I'm a Crack-Man, myself. Don't go in for those faces, you know...'), bring your level of competence on other terrain at least up to a level comparable with your specialty. On an alpine climb you're likely to be called upon to perform on a wide variety of rock. Be prepared.
If you're a sport climber who hasn't placed much of your own protection, you'll need to learn this skill. However technically good you are, when clipping bolts you're relying on other peoples' work, and in alpine settings this just isn't an option.
Finally, try to get out and do dirty, ugly routes - routes which haven't been touched because they're too loose, or wet, or wandering or otherwise considered by 'rock technicians' to be just a waste of time. Learning to deal with rock you haven't felt yet, seeking your own line (however easy the terrain) and dealing with the unexpected; these are all skills you should be comfortable with before going on to alpine rock.
In short, the alpine rock-climber has to be versatile, efficient and capable of moving quickly on unknown terrain. You should do very well if you set these goals for yourself and practice the techniques at your local crag before venturing into the alpine regions.
Alpine Rock Anchors: Knots
The alpinist must be prepared with simple but versatile skills. I suggest that you only need to know seven knots to do any alpine route, anywhere. You may very easily get away with less knots and more ingenuity. These basic knots are illustrated in Figures XX-XX. The figure-eight is a good tie-in knot and should be used to tie into the harness loops, not clipped through a harness carabiener. The Munter (or Italian) hitch is essential for icy ropes which won't fit through your belay device (or of you've dropped your belay device), though it kinks the rope. The prussik, Bachmann and kreutzklem I consider one knot as they are so simple to remember. These are discussed in the section on Ascending Fixed Ropes. The clove hitch is the best knot for adjusting sling and rope lengths, and is particularly good for belays and anchor equalization (all discussed below). Finally, the water-knot and fisherman's knot are used for tying slings and cords respectively.
Setting Up Belays and Other Fixed Anchors
A few basics to learn and remember, and supplement with practical skill. First, when placing a set of anchors for a belay or a rappel (if on a descent rappel you may have to leave the gear behind) use the BERT system to equalize the strain on your (hopefully securely placed) anchors. BERT stands for Bombproof, Equalized Redundant and Taut. Bombproof, hopefully, will describe the security of the anchor placement. In many cases, though this simply will not be possible, but you must take the time to do your best. Equalized means that the anchors are connected by a sling, slings or rope such that all anchors are being loaded at the same time, thus distributing the load over all the anchors rather than on just one or two. Redundant means having more than just one or two anchors. If possible, get in three or four, and for hauling or other sweaty work, five may be advisable. It all depends on the situation, but you should try diligently to never have less than two anchors. Taut means that the back-up anchors, if there are any, will not be shock-loaded if the other anchors fail. This is accomplished by equalizing all anchors as well as possible and attaching the back-up anchor to the other anchors with a taut link, rather than having slack in the system. See Figure XX for an illustration of these principles. Other acronyms for such a system have been devised; you can easily tailor one to your taste such that at anchor-placement time you never forget to go over these points.
In alpine rock climbing you must consider a few basic safety measures that are often overlooked on 'regular' rock climbs. The leader must always place some protection very soon after casting off so that a slip early on the pitch will not send them falling below the belayer, directly shock-loading the belay anchors. Also, belay anchors must have at least one component rigged for an upward pull so that in a fall this can take a good deal of the load. See Figure XX. When your team is moving swiftly (as should be the case on an alpine route), it may be easy to arrive at a belay station, grab the rack and head upward for the next pitch without considering this point, as the leader was only concerned with belaying you up the pitch. It's a good habit to always place 'up' anchors when rigging a belay (this goes for snow and ice belays also) so that the second can come up, pass you and carry on the next lead in (relative) safety.
When you have good reason to believe that your anchors are bombproof to the point of extremity, a very quick and efficient method of belaying is to use the direct belay. This is belaying the rope directly through an anchor, rather than off your harness. The principle is shown in Figure XX. Again, this is only justifiable when you are certain the anchors are perfect. This occurs on occasion, and can save a lot of time, eliminating rigging complexities. You may use your belay device or a Munter hitch (as shown in Figure XX), but remember that the Munter hitch will twist and kink your rope - a real drag, and time-consuming. When you consider a direct belay do not accept anything less than bombproof anchors. In a fall the load will come directly on the anchors; if these blow you and your partner are finished.
NOTE: March 1998. Tests by Chris Harmston of the Black Diamond company have found that the static belay is far inferior to the 'dynamic' belay. The static belay is one in which, as just described, the entire force of the fall is take directly by the anchors; this can create massive forces on the anchor system, causing multiple elements of the system to fail simultaneously and catastrophically. Better than this is the dynamic belay, in which some force is absorbed by the belayer's body as well as a somewhat more lengthy pay-out of rope during the fall. SO: keep these in mind, and decide for yourself. I think I will give up the fixed belay and stick with the dynamic (I never really got that much use out of the static belay anyhow...)
Natural Protection on Alpine Rock
The simplest protection is mindful navigation between rock features by the leader. Often on easier terrain the leader can weave a path between rocks and other features so that a fall will bring the rope across that feature and provide an anchor like any other piece of protection. The intelligent and creative use of slings (girth-hitched, preferably, so they don't slip off the feature) is particularly rewarding on natural features. Of course, check out the features before you use them. Look for obvious cracks, and be sure the feature isn't just a boulder glued to the rock face with a dribble of ice. Figure XX illustrates the principles of natural rock protection.
On steeper terrain, good natural features become more difficult to find. Technology is frequently required to supplement the protection methods available to the climber.
Artificial Protection on Alpine Rock
Rock-climbers who have placed their own protection will be familiar with the hardware described in the following sections. However, here I address the application of standard protection to alpine conditions, so you should not skip this section believing that you already know it. As for climbers who have not yet led and protected themselves, you should get practice at this on pure rock routes and then move on to alpine routes.
As is the case with many other types of climbing equipment, the market today is awash in an ocean of multi-colored, anodized and specialized hardware. A bit of trawling, however reveals that this diversity may be broadly divided into three basic types; passive protection, passive camming protection and active camming protection. The top-roping and/or bolt-clipping sport-climber will need to get some experience before venturing into alpine terrain, or their venture may be rather brief. The following sections summarize the basics of rock protection and suggest some adaptations for alpine conditions. The main thing to remember in selecting your alpine rock gear is that you should be prepared for anything from hairline cracks to ice-glazed off-widths. Take a variety of the tools available and balance an appreciation for elegant design with a loathing for gimmicks.
Passive Protection
Passive protection is slotted into a crack and is totally inactive until it is called upon to hold a load. The principle is that a wedge placed above a constriction will not be able to pass through the constriction with a downward pull. This is entirely intuitive and is illustrated in Fig. XX, along with a selection of commonly produced nuts (a widely-used generic term for a piece of passive protection is 'nut'; some also call them 'tapers', 'chocks', 'wedges' or 'wires'). The main things to remember here are that you place the wedge so that the greatest possible surface area contacts the rock, and that you need to prevent the piece from being subjected to an outward pull. To get the greatest surface area to contact the rock you need to select the right size and shape of wedge for the crack at hand. Ensuring that the nut is not loaded outward from the crack rather than downward is best done with runners, which also reduce rope drag. Both of these concepts are illustrated in Fig. XX. You may sometimes place a passive anchor such that it acts as a passive camming unit. See Fig. XX for suggestions and notes here. Get to know the range of your tools, and strain the gray cells.
For alpine work it's a good idea to carry a number of very small stoppers, or 'wires', so that you have a chance to aid thin cracks without resorting to nailing in pitons. Pitoning an aid section will generally take longer than using chocks on same section, and should be avoided. Also, wires are much lighter than pitons and you can carry a lot of them for the same weight as one piton. Of course, they may not be as secure as pitons, particularly if you end up using them for protection, so you don't just abandon pins out of hand. The key is versatility.
Medium-sized wires can be most useful for protecting/aiding finger-sized cracks. I suspect that you may decide to abandon larger sized wires for alpine terrain; when compared to the versatility of medium-sized passive camming units (such as the Hex-centric or tri-cam - see below); I've found that larger wires start to lose appeal.
Consider the route geology, ask around (if your ethic allows), and/or try to predict the crack size. This can be extremely difficult, as what looks like a nice finger-crack through a pair of binoculars may turn out to be a three-inch hand-crack.
Passive Camming Protection
This is protection which is torqued, or canted, or 'cammed' in a crack or feature such that the downward pull will lodge it tighter in the feature with torsion. The principle is easiest to understand in Fig. XX, and even better understood with experience in placement. The great advantage of passive-camming units is that they can be used in parallel cracks; where conventionally-placed wires normally need some sort of constriction in the crack (unless placed in a horizontal crack ; see above), passive cams can be used in less hospitable features. There are two main types of passive camming units on the market today. Black Diamond makes the Hex-centric, an excellent and time-honored tool. Lowe Alpine makes the Tri-Cam, another excellent tool, once you get used to it. Many climbers find a Hex-centric easier to place than a Tri-Cam. The lower weight of Hex-centrics (also known as 'hexes') is an advantage over comparably-sized Tri-Cams, though Tri-Cams are possibly more versatile, depending on the terrain. You'll have to experiment around and find out which protection you're most comfortable placing. It's better to figure this out on a crag than in some ice-choked gully...
For alpine work the hex seems to be the perfect rock protection. It can be placed both in a 'camming mode' and in two 'wedge modes'. While some passive anchor units may be placed so that they are camming, they are not designed for like the hex is. Slung with Spectra cord, the hex is lightweight and not bulky. I suggest you keep these points in mind as you're accumulating a new rack of hardware or adding to an old one.
As mentioned earlier, larger-sized stopper-type units tend to lose out to passive camming or active camming units in versatility. A hex the same width as a large stopper is more versatile than that stopper because it can be used in the same constriction as that stopper (in conventional wedging mode) but can also be used in a parallel crack, where the stopper might be impossible to use. On an alpine rock-climb, then, I suggest taking less larger wires and more comparably-sized hexes.
Whenever possible, passive camming units should be slung with Spectra or Gemini cord. These new Kevlar-fiber cords are extremely strong and lightweight, and reduce the bulk of the rack; both concerns on alpine climbs. The stuff is expensive but certainly worth the extra money.
Active Camming Protection
This is protection which relies on springs and/or some sort of tension or outward pressure to keep the piece in the crack. In the event of a fall the cammed unit grips the rock with an outward pressure of the cams. This is best understood in Fig. XX and by getting hold of some active camming units and experimenting with them.
These units, generically called 'Friends' or 'FCU's' (four-cam units) or 'TCU's' (triple-cam-units) or 'SLCD's' (spring-loaded camming devices) are expensive, heavy, versatile and can be very secure if properly placed. You'll have to decide for yourself whether they are worth the weight and expense. Certainly they can be used to cover a range of other pieces of protection, so that in essence one Friend may be 'worth' three stoppers of ascending size; but remember that you can only place the Friend in one place on the pitch, whereas if you have three stoppers you may be able to place all of them on the same pitch. Three pieces on the pitch versus one; worth thinking about. Though SLCD's can be faster and easier to place for the beginner, you can become good enough at placing stoppers that this 'advantage' starts to lose importance with time. Also consider that dropping a single stopper or hex is less of a disaster (because you have a few others) than dropping a single SLCD.
In alpine conditions you have to remember not to place SLCD's in icy cracks. This is mainly because if the unit is loaded the ice may break and the rock crack may not be the right size for the particular unit you've plugged in. It is also because SLCD's can 'walk' out of icy cracks easier than out of rock cracks. Chip away any coat of ice before placing the unit. See Fig. XX. Most SLCD's come with some sort of sling, but many, in my experience, are too short, and need to be replaced or extended because they tend to tip the unit sideways with rope drag. See Fig. XX. Though a fall may just pull the cam straight down again, it may not, and it's better just to keep it from moving in the first place.
In alpine climbing it is the micro-and macro-sized active camming units that are of the most use. In really tiny cracks which need to be aided, a pair of TCU's or 'sliders' 'leapfrogged' can really speed things up as they are faster to place and remove than most small-stopper placements (for 'leapfrogging' see the section on Alpine Aid Climbing). In the event of a fall, the smallest SLCD's might be stronger than small stoppers, though this is variable. For medium-sized cracks, standard hexes and stoppers and the like are fine, and are plenty strong enough and are relatively cheap and lightweight. I see little reason to bring along, say, two medium-sized Friends (which I can only place two times on a single pitch) when I can easily bring along, for less weight and bulk, four or five stoppers of ascending size (which I can place four or five times on a single pitch). Moving on to larger cracks, you may find that for these you like the security of giant SLCD's such as the Yates BigBro or one of the spring-loaded adjustable tube chocks available. These are good for protection of otherwise nearly unprotectable wide cracks; the alternatives - bong pitons (see section on Pitons) are pretty unpopular on alpine terrain because of rock destruction, their weight and bulk and low versatility compared to large SLCD's. The problem with these larger SLCD devices, though, is that they are heavy, and sometimes larger cracks can be protected with the largest hexes. Although every rack depends on the route, I would generally suggest that on alpine climbs you should use SLCD's for the smaller cracks, perhaps bringing a couple of giant ones if you really expect extended off-width cracks.
If you're aware of some larger cracks on your route and want to protect them but don't have any giant SLCD's or don't want to carry their extra weight, you can expand the working range of your units with some type of 'expander'. To do this you rely on methods normally used in technical big-wall climbs. Basically, you place any firm item available against one side of the crack and then insert the SLCD between this item and the wall of the crack. Now release and let the 'expander' be held in the crack with the pressure from the SLCD. If you're lucky the piece will hold, even under a load. See Fig. XX for the principle. Many climbers use wooden blocks, as shown in Figure XX, as 'expanders.
A lot of climbers find SLCD's somewhat addictive. I know one who just doesn't use anything else; no stoppers, no hexes, no exotic European imports - just Friends. This is unthinkable to me (though I do use SLCD's), but she's happy doing it. No problem, I say, unless she wants to get onto alpine rock, where, as I have mentioned ad nauseam, versatility is the key to success.
The chart below illustrates some broad suggestions for alpine crack protection, considering the weight, bulk and versatility of the various protection technology. You may find it useful as a guide.

STOPPER HEX SLCD PITON
SMALL CRACK excellent good excellent excellent
MEDIUM CRACK OK excellent overkill needed for icy cracks only, really
LARGE CRACK not versatile excellent excellent too bulky to carry big pins
Hooks and Pitons
Hooks can be invaluable in a number of situations. On a hairy lead, you may get so freaked out that the only resort is to whip out your hook, clip in with a sling and take a rest. Likewise, on verglas, unable to climb with your big alpine double boots, you can use a pair of hooks to overcome desperate sections. A number of hook types are available; the most difference is in the shape of the tip, which may be broad or pointed. Figure XX illustrates a selection of hooks commonly available. As usual, in the best alpine spirit, bring along a selection of hooks if you bring any at all. Perhaps one hook per climber, depending on the climb. If you do each carry one hook you may as well each carry a different type. Particularly for alpine climbs, I advise against the Black Diamond Talon hook, illustrated in Figure XX. This is a nifty idea (sort of), but allows you to use only one of the three hooks at a time. I'd rather carry two separate hooks.
I do not leave home without at least one Leeper Cam-Hook. The elegant principle of it's use is illustrated in Figure XX. Figure XX also shows some ways of placing the Cam-Hook.. The simplicity and versatility make the Cam-Hook an essential part of my alpine (and big-wall) hardware. Don't leave home without it. Bring a pair, one wide and one narrow, perhaps. The narrow models will often fit old piton scars, as shown in Fig. XX. Get a pair and practice with them at a local crag. Find and remember their range and limits.
Pitons
Pitons, lengths of metal hammered into cracks and clipped in through an eye (see Fig. XX), are still widely carried on alpine ascents. There are two main reason for carrying pitons; one is that sometimes you find yourself faced with a hairline crack that you can only anchor with a thin piton, the other is that pitons work in ice-glazed cracks, cutting through the ice as they're hammered in.
The Black Diamond thin-pin, the 'Knifeblade ' (also used generically for other thin pins) may be the most useful alpine piton, turning otherwise unusable thin cracks into good anchors. The 'Lost Arrow' is also a trade name (Black Diamond) which has been generically applied to many types of pins with a thickness up to about 3/8" (about 8mm). For extremely thin cracks there are 'RURP's' (Realized Ultimate Reality Pitons) and such items as 'Crack'n'Up's. These are rarely used as protection (in contrast to knifeblades and lost arrows) and are meant to be used as steps for getting up a bit higher in aid-climbing. The Black Diamond Spectre, a large hook designed for use in ice climbing, may sometimes be hammered into a Lost-Arrow sized crack. These should be tied off as an ice screw or shallow piton , as shown in Figure XX. For more notes on the use of the Spectre, see the sections on Ice Protection and Climbing Verglas and Other Icy Rock. See Fig. XX for a selection of thin pitons and tips on their placement.
The wider the piton, however, the less defensible it becomes to place one because the rock is damaged with each placement (though most damage is done during removal) and because wider ice-free cracks may be protected with stoppers and other small nuts, which weigh less. For icy cracks, though, sometimes wider angle pitons are needed. Medium-sized angles, ranging from about 1/2" (c.1cm) to about 2" in width are generically called 'angles'. Some alpinists still will carry a few of these on a climb as they make good rappel anchors (they are resistant to 'wiggling' out of a crack, unlike some stopper or hex placements). In fact, one of the main reasons people carry pins on alpine climbs is that they make excellent rappel anchors so long as you know how to place them securely.
Extra-large pitons, over about 2" in width, are pretty rare these days, often replaced by the less destructive jumbo-sized SLCD's described earlier. Large pins, from 3-6" wide, are generically called 'bongs' due to the 'bong-bong-bong' noise they make when being driven into a good crack. Some medium- and larger-sized pitons and tips for placing them are illustrated in Figure XX.
Placing good pins and judging their security is a skill required of the alpinist. Get a lot of practice. Learn to recognize the ascending 'ting-ting-ting-ting !' of a good piton and the hollow 'clack' of a rotten placement. Experiment with tying off marginal pitons, as illustrated in Fig. XX. This reduces leverage on the pin under a load. It's a good idea to learn some of the other big-wall aid methods, rounding out your knowledge and preparing you for a variety of situations: see, for example, ICS Books' Big Wall Climbing edited by Michael Strassman, and Royal Robbins' classic Advanced Rockcraft, from the old LaSiesta Press.
Placing Alpine Rock Protection in Desperate Conditions
If the crack in which you want to place the protection is choked with ice, you may be able to hack some of the ice out with an ice axe. If so, hack deep enough to accept the whole piece of protection and make sure you clear off all the ice on the sides of the crack. You may find it useful to bash the heck out of the ice with your hammer and then pry the loose blocks out with an axe pick or a piton. See Fig. XX for a number of points regarding icy crack protection. If one surface of a piece of protection is on good rock but the other is pressed against ice, it may look good but the placement is useless and will blow if you load it. If you can, hack deep enough into the crack so that you can set the protection a little way inside rather than flush with the outside edge of the crack. This will reduce the chances of having rope drag pull up on the piece, tilting it against the ice at the back of the crack and perhaps levering it out. It's a good idea to clip a friction-reducing runner to any piece placed in an icy crack, particularly wired stoppers. If possible, you may as well pack some snow on top of the piece before you cast off; this may further prevent it from tipping out as you labor above.
If you cannot chop out enough ice to accept the whole hexcentric, you can tie off the runner so that the load will be placed on the slotted portion only. See Figure XX for the illustration of this principle.
If the crack is wide and deep, but you can't hack out the ice, consider placing a screw in the ice in the crack. This may work, though you've got to be careful. Just placing the screw may pressure the ice such that t he whole structure collapses, particularly if you use a drive-in-screw-out screw. Also, when loaded, the ice in the crack may break out in a huge slice if you fall on the screw and the ice isn't totally attached to the crack. If you need to, tie off the screw. See Fig. XX.
It may be possible to wedge or cam a piece of protection between ice and rock surfaces. This will only work on the hardest of ice. This can be a nerve-wracking test of faith, but it may be better than nothing. In t he worst cases you may need to equalize a number of anchors, as in doing an A5 move, or setting up a belay. This may make things a bit more stout. In the hairiest of all terrain you may consider carrying Yates' Screamers or Scream-Aids. These are sewn slings you clip between the protection and the rope. When a load is applied, as in a fall, the stitching begins to give way so that the sling takes more of the impact than the anchor. See Figure XX for the principle.
Finally, if you can't do anything at all with the crack at hand, and can't reach a better crack above with a pair of hooks, you may have to down-climb or traverse to look for an alternate route. Or you may be able to spot a natural feature somewhere around you; a bush, an icicle, a frozen hummock of grass or mud; nearly anything that gives enough purchase for you to move up to that crack that's just teasing you beyond your maximum reach. Stay committed, but learn when to back off and look for alternatives, knowing that you've done your best.
Alpine Rock: Leading, Free Climbing and General Considerations
Two main characteristics of alpine rock distinguish it from most other rock-climbing terrain. First, there is a conspicuous lack of fixed protection. Second, there is often loose rock on alpine routes, due both to the lack of people 'cleaning' the route and the natural forces constantly decomposing it. If you're a 'sport' climber, accustomed to bolts every eight feet or so, you're in for a nasty shock when you climb an alpine route. You're going to have to learn to place your own gear. If you're a 'traditional' climber, used to placing your own protection, you already have some valuable alpine skills; you have an idea which placements a re good, which are not so good, how often you need to place protection to stay safe, and you may be familiar with situations where you have to 'fiddle' placements, fitting them to strange features. Importantly, you may also be used to situations in which there just isn't much protection, or where the rock is loose. You'll probably encounter all of these situations (let's hope not at the same time!) on alpine rock climbs.
In sport climbing, the old maxim 'the leader must not fall' has been cast to the lions. Falling is no big deal when there are lots of bolts between you and the ground, or even a top-rope. Again, in alpine climbing things are completely different. As Jim Bridwell, one of the great 'super-alpinists', has said of alpine climbing - 'Falling is out.'. He's right. The leader must not fall. The anchors in alpine terrain are, usually, just to few and meager to be risked. The belays are sometimes pretty shabby as well, a patch-work of whatever you can get in at the time, how ever straightforward it may seem in a book or in pictures.
As the leader, then, how can you ensure that you don't fall? There is not much that can be said here without going into the realm of common sense: practice rock-climbing, a lot; practice down-climbing, a lot; learn the limit of your current ability and be aware of it on the real climb; learn just how far you can push your limits, and remember this on the real climb; know when to turn back rather than pushing onward into a situation in which a fall could take you and your partner down the mountain; if a section is too difficult, and your ethic allows it, consider aiding the section rather than risking your life and your belayer's. Is the climb worth your life? This is what you're betting. I hesitate to say anything about limiting yourself, or considering aid if a section is too difficult for you to free-climb. These are personal decisions and are yours alone - don't let anyone influence your decisions here. Work them out on your o wn. Ask yourself what your are climbing for. Analyze you answer. Don't get killed for some standard you read in a magazine: the whole endeavor, start to finish, is up to you. The sole limitations are your environmental and climbing ethics, which should be sound. Think this over, carefully.
Test holds ! On alpine terrain all holds should be viewed as suspect. Many times the rock is rotten and can give way suddenly. If it does, cry out 'ROCK' to warn your belayer. Same for ice. Be particularly wary when using spikes or other rock protection as anchors; give them a good thump and inspect them visually.
Place protection whenever you can. On some rock-climbs 'running out' the rope - not placing much or any protection - can be a good test of your own will and fortitude (it can also be stupid, depending on the situation), particularly when you know the belay is bombproof, as on many sport climbs. Deliberate run-outs on alpine ground, though, are the realm of the insane or incompetent. The danger is too great. As John Barry has pointed out, on an alpine climb one fallen climber usually results in two falling climbers. Common sense and healthy fear should inform you of when it's appropriate to place protection. Of course, you don't 'sew up' a crack with pieces every five feet (on an alpine climb you won't be carrying enough hardware anyway), but you do stay ultra-safe and, whenever you come across an immaculate slot, even if you have a nice piece just a few feet below, you put in protection.
Rock-Climbing Practice for the Alpinist
On ice-free rock the techniques are the same as for 'normal' climbing, usually modified by more loose rock and less anchors, and less secure anchors where they can be found. Aside from getting plenty of rock-climbing practice on good weather days, go and climb in adverse conditions as well. If it's raining or snowing, go out and do some free routes at your local crag (OK, maybe just one route for the day). You'll soon have major advantages and survival skills beyond those of the fair-weather climber. Also, learn to climb with alpine boots and wearing gloves. Though you'll be able to climb a lot of alpine rock with bare hands, the time will come when you have to sink some fist- jams wearing wool mitts. Learn to jam your plastic boots into off-width cracks. Remember to use your legs for power, not your arms. Find out how small a hold you can grip while wearing ski gloves or wool mittens, and find out how cold it can get before you have to put gloves on.
Also, practice climbing while wearing a small pack. On a real climb you may need to leave the pack with the belayer and haul it up later, but sometimes you have to climb with a pack on. It's good to get used to this on a safe crag.
You can also practice iced-rock climbing techniques with your ice axes and front-pointing on rock with crampons as long as you don't damage the rock with your experiments. Though ice tools placed in cracks shouldn't necessarily damage cracks at all, front-pointing and hooking face holds with axes can leave scratches or chips on the route. It is not, in my opinion, defensible to damage rock in the name of practice. Be careful and learn. Practice traversing and down-climbing as well. The se sessions will really help you along in the future.
Regarding ethics - I believe that climbing icy rock with crampons and axes is aid-climbing. The tools themselves are 'aid'; they separate you from the rock and are used for purchase when nothing else will do. For this reason, I don't hesitate to attach slings to my tools and use them as aiders, or hang on my tools, or rest by hanging on a chock, or whatever. Some may say that they'd rather not do the climb if they can't 'free-climb' it. Fine (for them). Establish your own ethic; what are you after? Consider what others have to say, because many do have valid points; but, ultimately, you must decide what climbing is about, and you must decide how to act. Just don't wreck the experience for others or compromise the natural climbing environment.
Climbing Verglas and Other Icy Rock
To the loose rock and lack of protection characteristic of alpine routes, you may often add the phenomenon of verglas, a thin coating of ice plastered on the rock, sometimes of melt-water, but also particularly after a wet snowfall or rain followed by a freeze. Verglassed rock can be horrible to climb. The jacket of ice rounds off the holds which would normally be useful, turning what was once a 5.5 slab into a nightmare of slippery rounded holds. In alpine conditions you'll encounter an endless variety of iced rock. Sometimes it will be covered with a lacquering of clear verglas, other times buried under white billows of rime, a superficially beautiful but crumbling, shattering horror underfoot, formed by moist air and freezing temperatures. Whatever type of verglas you encounter, at some time you're going to be forced to climb icy rock wearing crampons and using ice axes . Techniques such as hooking, torquing and slotting are what you turn to here. These techniques are particularly common in Scotland, where the climbers are experts at iced-rock conditions and often spend their winters grappling up the same routes they c limb in summer in rock shoes. Some particular techniques (described below) may make cold climbing a bit easier, but your most valuable resource is your mind; be creative. Climbing routes where you are on ice, rock, snow and occasionally other media (frozen grass, bushes, stumps, etc.) is usually called mixed climbing, and it can be extremely challenging and rewarding. Sometimes it can be climbed with grace, other times it is a bloody, sweaty GRUNT.
When Cracks are Choked With Ice
If the cracks in the rock are choked with ice, and you'll basically be face-climbing, adopt a style something like that which you would use on thin ice climbs (see below). You may be able to hook your way up the face with your axes, perched on crampon front-points. This can be a trial of self-control, but it can work. Keeping one axe firmly placed, rake the wall above and around you with your pick; you may get lucky and snag on some rugosity. Test it with a steady, downward pull. If the tool does not pop off, try to get a look the axe placement. If you're hooked on a tiny chip of ice, keep this in mind (though you're not likely to forget it !). Now, slowly and evenly pull up on the tool, taking special care not to wiggle the shaft sideways or rock it back and forth. Concentrate on using your legs and arms in unison. If you have good foot-holds it may be possible to just use the hooked tool as a balance hold rather than for a lot of support. Push with your legs as much as you can.
As for your feet, your crampons may be used to chip ice away to get at the rock beneath, and, though this is laborious over the course of a whole pitch, it can be effective, especially when you find a horizontal crack. Front-pointing on thick verglas can work, but often results in sheets of ice popping off and climber's heart-rates soaring to the uncountable. As you make your way up, try to remember where you hooked your axes, and use these micro-ledges for your front-points. You may have to take your chances and just tap into the verglas and hope the ice holds. Of course, use your legs as much as possible. They have bigger muscles than your arms and shouldn't tire as quickly. Balance this knowledge by remembering that if you get a good axe placement, you can hang from it (from the loop, that is, not gripping the shaft too hard) and rest your tortured calves. If you share my opinion that you're already on aid, your normal rock-climbing ethics can go out the window. Hang from your axe, recuperate and carry on. Don't worry about using inelegant methods such as resting on your knees or jamming a whole arm down a crack; this is no place to be dainty.
Seek pockets of ice where you can get in an ice tool. These may be off to the side of your line of ascent, but who's worried about a particular line? Cracks filled with ice can be climbed with your ice tools, but is awkward for the feet. Keep one tool well above the other to prevent massive ice failure, and always try to move as high above your tools as balance and safety permit. This can reduce the number of placements you have to make, saving time and energy. Figure XX illustrates the principle.
Sometimes the ice on rock is just a few millimeters thick, such that it is impossible to get a purchase with crampons and impossible to climb in boots alone. Rock shoes also turn out to be useless. Well, at this point you may have to look for a different line (seek far and wide; perhaps a pendulum?), 'switch' to real aid or hand the lead over to your partner. Your choice of options may be influenced by your competitive spirit - though it may, by this time, be turning to Jell-O.
When Cracks are Free of Ice: Torquing
The situation is not always so dire. On some icy terrain you may find cracks in the rock which are deep and wide enough to accept the pick, hammer-head, adze or even the shaft of your axes. Torquing is putting a part of the axe into a crack and, applying some torque, using it to hold some weight (rare) or provide a balancing hold as you power upwards with legs and/or your other ice tool (often). Consider a vertical crack (in rock, or even in ice), just wide enough to accept the pick of your axe. You slot the pick and draw it downward in the crack, hoping against hope to find a constriction where the pick may get jammed like a stopper - but no luck, the crack is parallel and your nerves are frying. There may still be a glimmer of hope. Slide the tool in the crack to eye-height so you can see what you're doing. Gripping the shaft, rotate it clockwise or counter-clockwise, so that the top and bottom edges of the pick are pressed against opposite sides of the crack. Figure XX illustrates the principle. The torqued pick may hold some weight in a lateral direction, but it is best used as a secondary support rather than a primary piece. This may sound dull in text, but in real life this technique is rather - er - 'exciting'. Torquing a pick this way can also provide a very firm hold if you're stemming sideways (see Fig. XX). Be careful, particularly when traversing, not to torque the pick too much, as it could easily break.
If the crack does, however, have a constriction, it may be possible to slot the pick just like a chock; in this case you can test the piece and then yard up on it with confidence. Just be sure to keep the load on a slotted pick (not torqued) directed downward; it probably won't hold an outward pull. When torquing, remember that your pick is probably more brittle than usual, because of the cold, and that it's easy to break a tool this way. Remove your tools from cracks with care.
If you've slotted an ice tool, pulled yourself up on it and now find yourself facing a blank section, consider clipping a sling to the tool (girth-hitched, close to the rock, as in Figure XX) and taking a step upwards in the sling. You may also consider stepping on the head of the tool itself to extend your reach. Be careful and apply your weight slowly, keeping it as close to the rock as possible, as shown in Figure XX.
Sometimes it will be possible to use the whole length of your axe as a chock when you're faced with a block in a chimney, or even between two rock projections. See Figure XX(a). Alternately, you may be able to use just the pick and adze or hammer this way, as in Figure XX(b). Remember to test rock holds on icy terrain, as they might just be frozen to the surface of the ice and give way under your weight. Sometimes you can identify such rocks because they just don't make any sense in the overall pattern of rocks you observe; keep your eyes open.
Also keep an eye open for horizontal cracks which you might be able to stand on with your front points, as shown in Figure XX. You can also torque your front-points in diagonal or vertical cracks, though this can easily twist off your crampons if they're not very secure. This method is potentially dangerous because as you move upwards you instinctively wan t to press down on the torqued foot for support. Resist this temptation, and use torqued front-point placements as balance aids only.
Slotting , More Torquing and Techniques for the Desperate
It may also be possible to slot the hammer-head, shaft or adze into cracks. Again, look for a constriction. The hammer-head of some ice tools is tapered so that it works very well when slotted in a constriction (one of the few really important selling points, particularly if you're interested in mixed climbing; you can also file some hammer heads into a wedge - see Equipment Modification). A wide crack may be perfect for jamming in the shaft of an axe, providing a bomb-proof hold. Sometimes you can create a foot-hold with an axe jammed into such a crack; step on the axe head (taking care that it doesn't rotate under your weight), make the next placement of axe or crampon, then reach down and remove the axe / foothold. If things get really creepy, you may find yourself needing to use the adze of an axe, either jammed in a constriction like a nut, or even torqued so that the shaft of the tool is close to horizontal (using the principle of the Leeper Cam-Hook). When you do this, keep the load as far away from the end of the shaft as possible - the further away from the adze that you grip the shaft, the more leverage you apply and the more likely it is that you'll hear a clear 'TINK!' followed - interestingly - by your own screams as you plummet earthward. If you do torque an adze, perhaps just use it as a balance hold, and look for something more substantial to take a normal load, such as a good foot-hold.
A number of torquing and ice-tool improvisation methods are shown in Figure XX. Really, your imagination and the terrain are the only limits. Keep in mind that verglas is one of the most difficult climbing media. One more note; if you polled the gear manufacturers I'm not sure they would approve of such antics as torquing; these methods really stress your hardware . Still, they do work, and can take you across sections of rock which otherwise seem unlikely. Just be very, very careful, and inspect your tools carefully for damage.
Alpine Aid Climbing
While most alpine rock climbing will be free, often using the mixed-ground techniques described above, some alpine routes involve stretches of rock too hard to climb free; here you switch to the normally rather slow method of aid climbing. To overcome these sections quickly you must learn to aid efficiently.
Speed in alpine aid climbing is very important for reasons which will become apparent later in this book. It's all too easy to get into the 'aid mentality' and just plug along slowly. On alpine rock this just doesn't wash. Your belayer is freezing, it's getting dark and you didn't bring a stove; you simply must get moving. This is a far cry from having your partner belaying in comfort from a porta-ledge, with two haul bags filled with food and warm clothes hanging below. Speed comes from learning how to place acceptable pieces quickly and move onto them with due confidence.
One of the faster methods of disposing of aid sections is 'leapfrogging' equipment, as shown in Figure XX. The principle is to fin d a crack with a particular width and then place one piece of gear, hang from it, place a second piece of gear above the first, hang from the second piece, then reach down and grab the first piece again and place it higher than the one you're hanging on a t the moment. The principle is very simple. Because cracks tend to vary in width the best tools for leapfrogging are those with a rather wide range of action, such as an SLCD or Tri-Cam of some sort. The main thing to remember in leapfrogging is that you must not forget to place protection as you go up - it's easy to forget about this if you're really cooking. Practice at your local crag.
Aid Gear for Alpine Routes
On scoping out an alpine route you may determine that the aid sections will be limited, in which case you might decide to take less and lighter gear; for example, dispensing with the micro-sized camming units in favor of a selection of small stoppers. In these cases you end up aiding primarily with the gear you brought for free-climbing protection, supplemented with a few aid-pieces. Fair enough. On other climbs there will be more aid, and you'll have to reconcile the weight of the aid hardware with the time you'll save by being able to aid quickly, as when you have just the right equipment. This is a balancing act which can only be improved with experience. As a general rule, I find that micro-sized camming units are excellent for aiding quickly, but you generally don't want to use them for free-climbing protection, so you end up using them for only a small part of the climb (though for this section they are very efficient): because they are also relatively heavy for the number of pieces of protection they offer, a problem is born. This is the sort of problem-solving you'll have to undertake before every climb.
Alpine routes with longer aid sections will of course require more gear. In are as such as the Bugaboos, you may be climbing a technical rock route, but with two prime alpine characteristics; variable weather and little prospect of speedy assistance in case you get hurt. Here you rack up as usual for the climb, but bring along some ice gear and appropriate clothing, depending on the season. The difference is that you then pare down your rack to the bare essentials. Learning what is and what is not required is half the battle (well, maybe a third).
A few general tips. For alpine routes with appreciable aid sections, make a pair of 'alpine aiders' from half-inch tubular webbing, as illustrated in Figure XX. These can have three loops rather than four (saving weight and bulk) and you can probably get away with just carrying one pair for the leader rather than two (a pair each for leader and second) as you might on a big-wall climb. The second can improvise with slings as they pass aid sections. If you only anticipate a few bits of aid, skip the double-racking harness of the big-wall climber and just use a spare sling over your shoulder. If this gets too heavy, consider clipping gear to your pack-straps, as shown in Figure XX. Of course, if you're carrying an ice hammer, you can dispense with a piton hammer, particularly if you're only taking a few pitons for the aid and/or emergency rappel anchors. When using an ice hammer on pitons, be careful not to gash your face with the pick. You may find it easier to aim the hammer if you choke up on the shaft a bit. If you're removing pitons with the hammer, resist the strong urge to pry them out with the pick; it will eventually break. Rather, try to use one of the methods shown in Figure XX.
If you've done some aid climbing you may be familiar with a lot of gear which is handy for extended rock routes but is too heavy and specialized for alpine climbs. See the chapter on Planning the Climb for a list of items you may be able to leave behind for alpine routes with a lot of aid.
Aid Climbing Practice for Alpinists
To become efficient at aiding you have to practice. The local crag is the safest place to learn. I suggest tackling hard free climbs and switching to aid when they become harder than you would climb on an alpine rout e because of lack of protection, frozen hands, loose rock or whatever. Of course, on established routes DO NOT place pitons for your aiding experiments. Go clean - on nuts only. Not only will you be learning to aid cleanly with small nuts, as you would likely do on an alpine route, you will preserve the rock, which must be your first concern. If other climbers direct their attention your way, dismiss them as you see fit. You are climbing the route cleanly and it is none of their business HOW you climb so long as you don't damage the rock. You need to learn to start a free pitch, switch to aid for a few feet, and then go back to free climbing. This is often awkward and should be practiced in safety. Also practice the occasional aid climb wearing plastic boots, just as you practice free climbing in plastic boots. This will really help in the long run as with practice you become more comfortable with three-pound weights swinging on the ends of your legs.
The best way to practice for al pine aid is to go aid-climbing in foul weather. My partner Chiu and I have a policy; if the weather is too bad for an alpine route, we go to a local crag and do an aid pitch. You'll soon find that there are few conditions which can stop a really committed aid-climber. Rain, hail, snow, sleet, whatever; all are powerless to stop you, so long as you're properly clothed and mentally prepared. Just as you should occasionally practice rock-climbing in rotten weather, you should do some aid pitches in a downpour, or on a freezing day, or both. We have also found that it's invaluable practice to go climbing at night. Combine the two; if you manage to aid a full pitch in the rain, at night, you'll find yourself enriched by the experience and you'll shrug of f 'sunny-day' pitches with a chuckle. Basically, simulate the worst conditions you can imagine (the weather should take care of that) and stay committed. Remember, you're on a relatively safe crag; push yourself. Also remember that climbing in these conditions can be dangerous! Rain can generate rockfall, and an improperly clothed belayer can end up with hypothermia. The belayer may even want to sit in a bivvy-bag, or under a tarp. One suggestion; assemble a cheap 'Foul-Weather Aid Climbing Suit' from the local Goodwill or army surplus; a pair of plastic overalls or one of those PVC rain suits work well. You're going to get soaked anyway (so don't worry about Gore-Tex) but the suit will slow the process and you won't mind shredding it as you would an expensive climbing costume.
Use your head and practice in all conditions. Use the alpine gear you would take on a real climb, not your normal big-wall gear. The rewards are invaluable. Really, the grade isn't that important, as in m any alpine routes you probably won't go over A3; just get used to operating effectively in bitter cold and darkness.
Descending Alpine Rock
Descending alpine rock is about the same as in fair-conditions rock-climbing - but it is often far more dangerous. If possible, it's better to down-climb than rappel. Sometimes, however, it's necessary to rappel (or abseil), and one must be proficient at safely rigging anchors and descending the rope. First, down-climbing.
Down-Climbing
Down-climbing is a critical alpine skill. There will come times when, for whatever reason, you cannot manage to finish the pitch you've started. In sport climbing this is nothing more than an embarrassment, and you simply lower off of a bolt, or even fall off onto a bolt and then lower down. On an alpine climb, you just don't do this sort of thing. Almost without exception, the anchors you place on alpine terrain will not be as good as bolts (and there will be less than on a sport climb), and often they're not even as good as normal rock-climbing protection placed on the lead. These are not anchors you want to weight unless you really have to. It's almost always better to down-climb than to lower off.
You may be tempted at first to do a lot of hanging from your arms, but in down-climbing you must use your legs as much as possible, as in any other type of climbing. Belay the leader down as usual, and if they're not retreating from leading a pitch, they should place some protection on the way to save the second climber from a major fall if they come off. If the belay anchors are excellent the leader may find that it's easy to lower down, or hang on tension a lot. This is great for the leader, but not such a joy for the second, who may find themselves down-climbing really difficult sections the leader zipped happily past. Obviously this is very dangerous, particularly if the leader didn't bother to place any protection on the descent. The leader should be aware of this and protect the pitch adequately.
There is not much else I can say about down-climbing; it's an essential skill and you should practice it often. When you're at your local practice crag, or even at a climbing gym, resist the easy way out - lowering off. Down-climb. Learn to down-climb in boots as well as rock shoes. Also practice down-climbing ice; sometimes this is even more difficult, but it is also very important. Lowering off of ice protection, which is often marginal, can be very dangerous.
Rappelling Safety Measures for Alpine Climbing
NEVER trust in situ rappel anchors without first checking them out ! EVER ! Fixed pitons may look great, but might just consist of rusted flakes of metal packed into the crack. Give them a good body-weight test (be anchored to something else !), and then some. If you must use in situ anchors, be sure to equalize them with a sling, as shown in Figure XX(a, b) or as the situation requires. For traversing rappels, where you need to equalize for multi-directional loads, fix the slings as in Figure XX(c). If the fixed anchor is a sling, replace it unless it is brand-new (which will be rarely) with some 7mm cord or 1" sling (always bring about 10m of 6 or 7mm 'rap-cord' in the bottom of your pack if you anticipate rappels in unknown terrain). A fixed rap sling has had an unknown number of ropes pulled through it, and the resulting friction can heat and weaken the sling. In situ rappel rings or carabieners should be checked out carefully as well. I would suggest leaving your own carabiener rather than using one already hanging there at the anchor (take the old one home; you can use it as an accessory 'biener for aid climbing).
If you ca n place your own rap anchors, do so. Place whatever you feel is enough, and a bit more than enough, to accept a climber rappelling jerkily down on a lumpy, icy rope. Remember that jerky alpine rappels shock-load the anchors more than your smooth rock-climbing rappels back at home. Don't concern yourself with the monetary expense of leaving gear behind as rap anchors. Get home alive, work for a few more days, or weeks, or whatever, and replace the gear you left behind. A miserly climber may well end u p dead.
Rappelling should be a basic skill known to the rock-climber. The trick is to adapt the normal rock methods to alpine conditions. Many climbers ignore a number of safety measures which, in alpine terrain, should be standard. This is basically because in rappelling at the local crag you are less likely to slip on a patch of ice, for example, or be knocked off balance by falling rock, or lose your balance by dislodging loose rock underfoot. Still, since I began alpine climbing I now use most of the safety measures of alpine rappels even when I'm just rock-climbing at a practice area. This is because I detest rappelling and I'll be damned if I'm going to get the chop 'lowering off' a climb.
The most basic safety method for alpine rappelling is to tie the ends of the rope together before they are cast off, and then clip a locking carabiener (or doubled opposing standard carabieners) between the two ropes, and then into your harness. This way, if you lose control, at least you won't go off the end of the rope - the carabiener(s) connecting you to the 'loop' of rappel rope will catch you (if the knot is secure, anyway). See Figure XX. The only case where this measure may be ignored is when you're on what you're positive is the last rappel of the descent; that is, when there is no danger of coming off of the rope (as when you can see that some of it is laying on the ground below). There is no reason why you shouldn't use this method even on non-alpine climbs. A problem which may arise from this practice is that of having the rope - which is now a loop - snag on some projection down below in the event that you have to haul it back up to your anchors. Consider the terrain.
Another very basic safety measure is to attach a safety-prussik (or other ascending knot, such as the kreutzklem; see section on Ascending Fixed Ropes) to the rappel lines above you, clip this to your harness, and then rappel. Your upper hand (not the control hand) grips the safety- prussik and slides it down the rope with you as you descend. If you slip, the knot should lock on the rope (if you're aware of the slip, you may even be able to squeeze or jerk on the knot to be sure it locks). You need to find a balance of tightness in the safety-knot, between too loose (probably won't lock if you fall) and too tight (may jam too easily on ice or half-way tapes, creating a real problem; see below). See Fig. XX. Be sure the safety prussik is within reach, though, because if it locks and you can't reach the knot, hanging from your harness, you're in for a long operation of rigging more prussiks and going up to release it. I can't see any reason why one would rappel without a safety-prussik. It may be a bit of a bother to tie one ever y time, at first, but it soon becomes a habit, and a good one. Far better than getting in the habit of not using it.
A potential problem exists with the use of the safety-prussik, however. If you have tied two ropes together for the rappel, and they have 'half-way' tapes on them, your safety-knot may jam on the tapes on the way down, bringing you to a rude halt in mid-rappel. The problem is that if you're hanging from the safety-knot by your harness, it may be very difficult to get started rappelling again because you need to get ALL your weight off of the safety-knot before it will release and allow you to continue down. See Fig. XX. To prevent this situation you can take the half-way tapes off the rope before you go climbing, though then you will have to eyeball the length of the ropes (unless it's a bi-color rope; see section on The Alpine Rope). This is up to you, of course. If you don't want to take the tapes off your ropes, and you do get hung up, there are several solutions , of course dependent on the situation. Whatever the case, the first thing to do is to tie yourself to the rope below, or at least lock the rappel device so that when you do get off the safety-knot you won't go plummeting down out of control. Now, you're tied to the rope, the rappel device is locked, but you're still hanging from the jammed safety-knot: your next move depends on the terrain. You may be able to knock in a piton, or slot a nut or some piece of protection that you can weight (perhaps standing in a sling), taking your weight off the safety-knot. You can then loosen the knot, transfer your weight to the rappel device, retrieve your hardware and carry on. If you can't get any purchase on the rock or ice before you, as when you're in a free-hanging rappel, you can still get out of this nasty situation. Use a sling to tie a kreutzklem (see Knots) above the safety-knot. Get your weight on the kreutzklem, preferably standing in a sling. Now loosen the jammed safety knot and then push your rappel device as far up the rope as it will go (right up under the now-free safety-knot). Now, lower your weight onto the rappel device, then untie the kreutzklem and continue down. You have to put the kreutzklem as high up the rope as possible so that you can slide your rappel device up as high as possible so that it, in turn can take your weight. Figure XX illustrates these alternate methods of getting off of a jammed safety-knot.
Obviously this is a major operation, and these are dangerous maneuvers for someone hanging on a rope. I'd suggest getting rid of the half-way tapes before you go climbing. If you insist on keeping the half-way tapes, consider using the Bachmann knot for safety (see Ascending a Fixed Rope). This way, if you get hung up on the tapes, or ice on the rope, you just free the snag by working the carabiener back and forth (be sure to have the control rope LOCKED). Though you won't get hung up every time you pass the half-way tapes, once is enough to make you consider just getting rid of them.
Yet another method to ensure safety on an alpine rappel is useful at least for the first person rappelling: belaying the rappeller. If there is a spare rope (which will likely be unusual) it can be used by the climber at the rappel station to belay the first person going down. If you have a spare rope, you may as well belay. If you feel you want a belay and have tied your only two ropes together for a full-length rappel, you can tie off one rope, rappel on it and u se the other rope as a belay line. This only works for the first person going down, of course, as the second climber must untie the knot so the rope can be retrieved. Once the first rappeller is down, they'll find it hard to belay quickly enough for the second person coming down.

CHAPTER 2
ALPINE ICE CLIMBING

It can be argued that ice climbing is the second fundamental skill of the alpinist. As with rock climbing, ice takes time and effort to master. At first you'll probably be amazed at how easy it is to climb all but the steepest ice. The line between 'rather easy' and 'awfully hard' is very fine, but often very clear. If you learn to judge the location of this line in different situations, you'll make better decisions when confronted with a section of ice.
Ice can often provide critical links between rock or snow sections, providing a steep 'bridge' across rock too steep or featureless to climb in alpine boots. For these sections, be thankful. You'll be less thankful when ice glazes rock, but you can't often have it your way; that's part of alpinism.
Ice climbing is equipment-intensive, but the equipment can do nothing without the direction of a human mind. Remember this as you read the sections on ice tools and become engrossed in the details; the technology is fantastic, and can make amazing ascents possible, but it is the person swinging the tools that counts. Get your mind into gear on an ice climb; you should be cunning and subtle; brutal attack generally results in a clumsy butchering of an otherwise climbable route. On the other hand, occasionally brute force is precisely what's needed. This variety of thinking skills and opportunities make ice climbing an awesome mental and physical adventure.
Ice Tools
The basic tools are those which attach your hands and boots to the ice. These are the ice axe and the crampons. You will find a surprising variety of tools available these days and, no doubt, in the future. Try not to get so bogged down with technicata that you forget the climbing you're supposed to be doing.
On many alpine routes it may be possible to climb with a single axe. Consider that many of the great faces and ridges still climbed today were first climbed decades ago, in the days when there were no drooped picks, bent shafts or modular tools. For a period, even wrist-loops were considered 'cheating'. A great many classic climbs were done first with a single axe and a handful of pieces of protection. I'm not asking you to stick your neck out in the interest of tradition (though you may reasonably wish to do so), only that you consider the style of the first ascent before you go up. If you decide on taking two axes on a climb, which will likely be most of the time on technical routes, it's humbling to remember the style in which the first ascent was made, and adjust your bragging accordingly.
I will try to condense your choices of axe designs in this section, but keep in mind that there is no substitute for experience. Before buying tools, ask around. Find out which tools are better for particular situations. As a beginner, I suggest looking for the most versatile tools. You can specialize later; for now, set yourself up with a solid pair of generalized tools which can be used on any terrain, or at least can be modified to deal with any terrain.
Ice Tools : The Axe and Hammer
The basic features of ice axes are illustrated in Figure XX. These are the pick, the adze (or hammer, if dealing with an ice hammer), the shaft and the spike (or ferrule). Axes are fitted with a wrist-loop, or sling on which the wrist is supported so that you don't grip the shaft so much as hang on the loop.
A few basics to consider when you are going to buy an axe, or a pair of axes. Go to a store with a good selection of axes (if you can find one) and feel them out. When ice climbing one of the main considerations is control and aim rather than strength. Swing the axes overhead, simulating an ice climb. After comparing a number of axes, you'll probably find that you feel most comfortable with a certain pair. Go with what feels most controllable. See if your hand comfortably grips the shaft - a fat axe is difficult to grip, but the ease of grip also depends on the size of your hand and the type of gloves you'll be wearing. Wear a pair of gloves and see how the axes feel; if they're at all too fat, and you find it difficult to get your fingers around the shaft, it's going to be ten times worse in the field ! Get axes you can hold comfortably with minimal effort.
Axes equipped with rubber-coated shafts are much easier to hang onto than bare-metal shafts. If the axe comes with an attached sling, try it out to see if it's easy to operate with one hand, or with your teeth (try not to slobber on the display model). If the salespeople are climbers and know anything about the gear, ask around about 'field reports'; notoriously strong tools, weak tools, whatever. You will spend a lot of money on your ice tools, so get the best information you can before dropping your cash. Remember, few retailers will give a refund on climbing gear (damage to equipment may be effectively invisible). Don't rush into a purchase, and for heaven's sake, don't buy the coolest-looking tools. You won't feel so cool if they turn out to be dogs.
For general mountaineering - that is, most non-technical climbing, you can use a walking axe. The standard walking-axe is illustrated in Fig. XX. This is generally an axe with a shaft long enough so that, when the axe-head is held in the hand the spike touches the ground and can be used for support. This is a rather long ice axe, often 60-80cm in length. The size chosen depends on the user, of course. Note that the pick of the walking axe is roughly perpendicular to the shaft. In technical tools, discussed below, the pick is more radically drooped. The perpendicular orientation of the walking-axe pick provides plenty of clearance for the pcik to dig into snow during self-arrest (see the section on Alpine Snow Climbing). The advantages of a walking axe are that it provides a good reach, which may be critical in some cases, and that it is generally excellent for self-arrest. Additionally, the length of the walking axe can make it a better anchor in snow than the shorter technical axes (see the section on Snow: Anchors). The main disadvantage of a walking-axe on a more difficult alpine climb, as opposed to a general mountaineering route, is that the droop of the pick is too moderate to be really secure when used on very steep terrain, particularly for hooking. Though you can amaze yourself with how much can be accomplished with a walking-axe on steep ice, few will tackle a really steep or hard pitch without specialized ice tools.
In contrast to the walking axe is the technical ice tool. This is shorter and, even when the pick is fixed (rather than interchangeable; see below) it is drooped at a steeper angle than the walking axe pick. Technical tools often have interchangeable picks, and some allow you to change the adze and hammer-head as well. Additionally, some technical tools these days often have a bent shaft, which many claim to be almost essential for the most difficult ice pitches. These features are discussed below.
You will need to decide on the length of the technical tools you want to buy. Most tools come in lengths from about 45cm to 60cm. The swing and aim of a 45cm tool is perhaps easier to control than with a longer tool, but of course with a longer tool you may be able to hook that ledge that's just out of reach of the shorter tool. Some climbers also find a shorter tool easier to use as a hammer for nailing in and removing pitons, and therefore carry one shorter tool (say, 45cm) and one longer tool (say, 50cm). My main partner, Chiu Liang Kuo (a real equipment expert) uses this system, but I've always found it to be awkward, and I just choke up on a hammer to make it easier to use. It seems that a good balance for the beginner, interested at first in developing the varied skills of alpine climbing, is to get a pair of 50cm tools.
Next to length, another major consideration is whether or not to get tools with fixed or modular heads. These are illustrated in Fig. XX. This is a pretty simple choice in my mind. However good a fixed tool is, you may some day break one of the components; probably the pick. There are few situations more distressing than being in the middle of a hard pitch and finding that - surprise ! - it's just turned into a one-tool climb. The solution used to be have a spare axe dangling from your harness, but today many climbers just shell out the cash for modular tools and replace the components that get broken. On a climb, it's pretty nice to know that you're carrying a spare pick, even if replacing that pick, while on the lead, can be tough. Also, when you get back to civilization, you can just buy another pick rather than a whole new tool. It seems clear: even for the beginner, you may as well get a pair of modular tools. They will be more expensive but they will probably pay off the difference when you break your first pick. When you're picking modular tools, look for those with the strongest head assembly. Steel alloy units are far more durable than any aluminum alloy units.
A third choice to consider, less clear to me than the last, is whether or not to get straight-shaft or bent-shaft tools. These are illustrated in Fig. XX. Even vertical water ice can be climbed without too much trouble with straight-shafted tools, especially when fitted with technical picks (see below). However, bent-shaft tools can make this sort of climbing much easier (by increasing the efficiency of the swing and reducing wrist-bending, as shown in Figure XX). If you want to become the Earthly Master of Hard Ice, you'll likely need a pair of ultra-modern ergonomic tools to catch up with what the current Masters are doing; then again, you may find that you can do these routes with straight shafts, which would be a delicious victory over technomania. Some say that bent-shaft tools keep you from bashing your knuckles. Others say that this is poppycock, and that bashed knuckles are a sign of poor technique. I agree, as I quickly learned not to smash my knuckles with straight shafts after a few painful ascents. Some climbers insist that bent shafts are more difficult to plunge into snow than straight shafts (see the section on Alpine Snow Climbing), but I have not found this to be a real problem. The choice is yours. Just be sure you research your tools very carefully.
Another critical choice is that of what type of pick to buy. Basically, picks come in alpine and technical styles. A selection is illustrated in Fig. XX. The main difference between these types of picks is in the angle of the pick relative to the shaft of the tool: see Figure XX for the principles. Alpine picks are closer in angle to that of the walking-axe, though they are drooped more. These 'classic' picks are meant to be used on moderate terrain, though, again, many climbers can use them even on vertical ice. I have done so and if I can do it, believe me, so can you. For really outrageous terrain, such as extended vertical ice or even overhanging ice, technical picks make climbing a lot easier (though never easy !), and are probably safer as you're less prone to falling when the climbing is easier. Try to select picks that have a large shoulder that you can hammer on to drive the pick into really dense ice, as shown in Figure XX. Some manufacturers produce picks which have an angle between that of the technical and the alpine (e.g. the Grivel 'Face Nord' and 'Evolution' picks, and the Black Diamond 'Alaska Pick'). These picks are made for the most varied terrain; on long climbs, where you'll encounter very technical sections as well as moderate alpine conditions, these will allow you to climb both types of terrain without changing picks. This is an excellent choice for the beginner. Some mid-range picks are illustrated in Figure XX. If you buy modular tools it's a simple matter to buy a pair of alpine picks and a pair of technical picks (well, simple if you can afford such luxury !) and change them according to the climb. This is another advantage of the modular tools. Most technical picks are flat blades, though Lowe produces a tubular pick (see Fig. XX) for use on water ice only. Again, if you're going to specialize, this may be worth considering, but for the beginner a pair of standard alpine and technical picks is a good start, while a pair of mid-range picks is even better (if you buy tools from the company that makes them).
The hammer-head and adze are pretty easy to deal with. A good hammer head is not small and is not round; a large hammerhead is easier to aim and a square or wedge-shaped one may be used for slotting in cracks. As for the adze, your choice is basically limited to adzes with or without lightening holes. I think the difference is negligible, though adzes without lightening holes have heavier heads and may place more readily in hard ice.
Third Tools
There are basically two situations in which climbers carry a third ice tool. On particularly difficult, dangerous or technical terrain, such as a practice ice-climb where you're pushing your limits in relative safety, a third tool may just save your hide; if you break a tool en route, and cannot replace the pick while hanging from a single tool, you can whip out the third tool, hook the ice and then get to work on the broken tool, or just carry on upward. On the same terrain you may find it impossible to hang from just one axe while placing a piton, and the third tool may again be used as a hammer. Sometimes you can use a third tool, with a much shorter shaft than regular tools, for very delicate maneuvers like hooking. Whatever the case, on these sorts of climbs, where you're are not too worried about the extra weight, a third tool is a good idea.
Another situation in which a third tool may be useful is on a big, remote climb (where your are concerned with weight, intimately !) where a dropped or ruined tool would spell disaster.
For the beginner I would suggest just going with two tools, to start anyway. If you really want a third tool for a desperate practice climb, just borrow one of your partner's tools and lower it to them when you reach the belay.
Wrist-Loops and Lanyards
As mentioned earlier, you don't normally stay attached to the axes by gripping them alone - you'd have to be Hercules incarnate if you did. It's humbling to remember that for a few years wrist-loops were considered cheating, and people DID just grip the tools ! These days you put your weight on the wrist-loop, just wrapping your fingers lightly around the shaft of the tool. The only time you really clamp down on the shaft is when you swing it to make a placement or drive a piton or screw.
Some tools come supplied with a wrist-loop, but most don't; you have to buy the sling separately. Making wrist-loops is interesting and fun because you get to experiment with your own personal design. It's also a lot cheaper than buying a ready-made sling, and a home-made model is probably better suited to your needs and tastes. The simplest sling is just a loop which is twisted around the wrist when you need your hand secured, and then untwisted when you want to get your hand out. See Figure XX. Another, more elaborate, set-up is illustrated in Figure XX. This sling has a sliding adjuster which can be cinched down on your wrist. It also has a tab sewn on so that you can operate it with your teeth, which can be very useful if somewhat barbaric-looking. Depending on your threshold for pain, you may want to add a wrist support by threading the sling with a length of one-inch tubular webbing, which may also be covered with duct tape. See Figure XX. It's a good idea to add a clip-in loop at the bottom of the sling so that you can attach a lanyard (see below), clip in for an improvised belay, or for the occasional rest on steep terrain. A number of sling suggestions are seen in Fig. XX. Remember when attaching the sling to set it up so that it does not, when weighted, pull the tool out from the ice, but at least straight downward, or even inward towards the ice. To do this, see Figure XX. It's also important that you rig the sling so that when weighted, the stress does not tend to torque the pick from the ice; to prevent this, rig the sling as shown in Figure XX. Also, you may as well use runner-strength sling to rig the wrist loop; this will be reassuring when you use the tool for an improvised belay, and if you ever get in such a mess that you have to remove the slings and use them for rappels, you'll at least know that the sling isn't the weak link in the anchor. Rig your slings so that when you let go of the tool and let it hang from your wrist (as when you need to do some rock climbing) it won't hang horizontally and snag on rock or ice (a rude interruption to any delicate move, you can be sure). See Figure XX. Finally, rig the sling so that when weighted by the clip-in loop (if you add one), the loop does not constrict and make it impossible to get your hand through again until you've removed the load. This principle and a solution are illustrated in Figure XX.
The theme of creativity which is such a dominant aspect of alpine climbing applies here too; experiment with designs and settle for one which is best for your style of climbing.
Some climbers use lanyards (or leashes), cords of perlon which attach the ice tool to the climber's harness. See Fig. XX. The practice has pros and cons. One pro is that if you accidentally drop a tool, at least it'll still be hanging on your harness. Another is that you can rest on these lanyards right away if you get tired, rather than fiddling with clipping in a sling. A mixed blessing is that if you fall a long way, the tools stay with you as you go down, and at least you'll have them ready to climb up again; however, you may not get the chance to climb back up as you may have an ice pick implanted in your skull. A major con is that lanyards are an incredible nuisance. If you don't plan their length PRECISELY, they constantly foul in your hardware and they tend to get hooked under your crampons when you're doing certain moves, which is so dangerous and annoying that it can drive you to drink. See Figure XX. If you do decide to use leashes, adjust them so that they reach exactly from your harness to the maximum extent of your reach (do NOT make them even a centimeter too short !). Remember that they will be clipped into a carabiener on your harness, and that . The length should be adjustable so that when the tools are holstered, you don't trip on the leashes. I suggest you try climbing with them and without them and decide for yourself whether they're worth the effort. In my opinion, they're not.
One solution is shown in Figure XX. Clip two slings of precisely the right length to your central harness biener, then to the chest strap of your pack. This keeps it from dangling at your feet until you need to use it. When you want to hang, just unclip a sling from your chest strap and clip the sling into the ice axe loop.
Crampons
Crampons are the spiked metal frames you attach to your boots to gain purchase on ice, snow and - sometimes - rock. There is a wide variety of crampon species infesting the world today. Some are good, some are excellent and some are crummy. Choosing the right crampon depends on your needs. When you choose crampons, consider what type of alpine climbing you will be pursuing; will you want to go for ice, or are you more interested in mixed climbing ? Are you just buying them to cross sections between rock ? Or, as is most reasonable, are you anticipating a variety of terrain, all of which you want to be prepared to climb ?
For difficult ice, you need front-points rather shorter than intuition may tell you; shorter points reduce leverage and are better for balance. The front points should extend beyond the front welt of the boot about 1" or so. Some climbers wear crampons with interchangeable front points, switching from horizontal to vertical front points (or one point, the monopoint) as necessary. Such models are also good because they allow you to replace filed-down front-points rather than buying new crampons. Modular crampons, however, are generally rather expensive, and for the beginner they are probably overkill. A rigid, rather than articulated design is best on difficult ice, giving maximum support for extended front-pointing as shown in Figure XX. Figure XX illustrates these choices and notes some of their pros and cons. For the generalist, an articulated frame is better for walking (as on a ridge) and mixed climbing. If you can afford it, you may consider buying a pair of crampons with interchangeable front-points so that you can experiment and see what you like best. On the other hand, remember that you won't go wrong if you buy a 'basic' pair of crampons with fixed front-points.
For snow-climbing the front points are best if horizontal, giving a bit more 'grab' than vertical points on harder snow. The down-points are not much concern on snow, as long as they bite, which they all should ! Crampons with 'French' second-points (as in Figure XX) can give a better purchase in snow and on some ice, but this is not really enough of a selling point in my opinion, as I'd rather trade that advantage for being able to climb mixed ground (see below).
For rock and mixed climbing, the shorter front-point is good, again to reduce leverage, and it's best to have down-facing second points, as shown in Figure XX, to allow you to use the whole length of your front-points. The monopoint is excellent for mixed climbing, allowing you to climb rock rather naturally. Again, the most versatile crampons are probably the best bet.
A final choice is between strap-on or step-in crampons. Strap-on's, shown in Figure XX, are attached to the boot with a system of straps. Old styles were complicated but more modern models are easier to operate. Step-in crampons attach with a toe-bail, a heel-clamp and an ankle-strap, as shown in Figure XX. The best step-in's offer the option of attaching another safety strap (see Figure XX, which secures them beyond doubt. Strap-on's can be a nightmare to rig with frozen fingers, and I prefer the simplicity of step-in's backed up with a safety strap (see the section on Equipment Modification).
The trick is to buy a pair of crampons which allow you the greatest degree of freedom in what you want to climb. Overall, for the beginner I suggest a pair of articulated crampons with 'mixed-climbing' second points, horizontal front-points, and a step-in attachment system (can be backed up; see the section on Equipment Modification). Such a pair of crampons should see you through many adventures on all types of terrain. I have climbed all sorts of terrain, from vertical water ice to rime ice to Styrofoam snow to compact granite to crumbing volcanic crud with a pair of Stubai Tirol crampons. They are durable and a good beginner's choice, or a model on which to make comparisons when it comes time to buy.
Fit the crampons you're considering to the pair of boots you're considering. It will be little use to buy one or the other and find out that they aren't compatible.
Boots
Yet another nebulous topic, and again, in my opinion, unnecessarily complex. Yes, by all means you MUST get good boots, but no, by all means, the extremes of detail available today are not always useful. I discuss boots here rather than elsewhere because for technical climbs they are so intimately connected with crampons that the two should be bought together, or at least each considered with the other in mind.
The basic choice is; plastic or leather. Leather is usually heavier, few leather boots are made with replaceable/modifiable inners, leather can freeze solid like a rock overnight and leather can crack or otherwise degrade if poorly treated. Plastic boots have replaceable/modifiable liners, remain flexible in low temperatures, do not (if well made) crack or otherwise degrade with age, and are relatively lightweight. Two pros for leather; one is that in really cold areas they may keep one's feet from freezing as they can expand a bit as your feet swell up with the stress of long hard days. Plastic boots which don't expand this way restrict the swelling and can cut off the blood in your foot, allowing it to freeze. This, however, is a rare occurrence (though it won't seem so 'rare' if it happens to you), and plastic boots have kept a lot of climbers warm.
Choose boots and crampons together. Make sure they feel good when worn together in the store, and that the ankle strap doesn't constrict the boot and clamp down on your leg. Be sure the boot soles are stiff; front-pointing requires that the soles don't buckle. Make sure the front-points extend beyond the front welt of the boot by an inch or so. Look for quality in the inner boot if you don't want to replace them all the time (you can reinforce mediocre inner-boots with duct tape on the sole and seams). While wearing the boots in the store, with a pair of liner socks and insulator socks (see below for details), raise up on your tip-toes a few times. Does your heel lift up from the floor of the boot? This can be annoying and detrimental on steep ice. How do the boots feel just walking around? You'll be doing a lot of approach hikes and descents in them, so don't get stuck with a pair of clogs.
Some boots offer a buckle system rather than laces, but I think this is an unnecessary expense for the beginner, and the buckles are still not infallible- they can clog with ice, and are bulky enough to make wearing gaiters a problem. If you get totally into alpine climbing you'll eventually be spending every last dime on it anyway; buy these later if you feel you really need them.
Some boots are coming on the market these days which allow you to wear a rock shoe within the plastic shell; on the approach and descent you wear the shells for ice work, and just the rock shoes for the rock sections. Great, as you don't have to carry two pairs of boots (especially a problem when you have to try to figure out how to cram two enormous plastic boots into a tiny alpine backpack). In theory, anyway. The only ones available at this writing are the Presles offered by Raichle. Reports are that these are good for moderate snow and ice climbing, but that you don't want to go out on a limb in them. I'd wait on these until the ultimate comes on the market, which is probably not far off; a good ice boot with rock-climbing inner boots. Unfortunately, the big sacrifice will probably be in warmth.
As with ice tools of any type, it may be possible to rent or borrow some boots before you buy, spending a day at a glacier and feeling out the different types. This may sound like a bother but when you see the price of ice tools and boots it quickly becomes worth the effort and expense.
If you're planning on doing really difficult rock-climbing on your ascent, you'll need to bring along a pair of rock shoes. These should be rather lightweight and just large enough to allow you to wear a pair of heavy socks inside (in other words, don't bring your skin-tight sport-climbing slippers).
Ice Protection
Ice protection may, like snow and rock protection, be divided into natural and artificial protection methods and devices. The integrity of all ice protection depends primarily on the strength of the ice. You must learn to distinguish between different types of ice to assess where you do and do not want to place protection. As with most alpine skills, this is not something you can learn from a book; you must go out and learn by experience. The most general rules of thumb to start out with are that transparent or translucent ice is generally stronger than ice with bubbles trapped inside, which may make it rather opaque (unless it's not; that's about as certain as things get). The spectrum of colors of ice, from clear to blue to green to black depend on the conditions and the location of the ice, and you need to learn what colors mean in particular situations. Again, as you climb, carefully observe the qualities of different varieties of ice. Don't just climb blindly onward; learn to pick the best ice and get onto it if you can. For more on ice, and ice climbing in general, see Yvon Chouinard's 1977 classic, Climbing Ice. The book is elegant, inspirational and well illustrates the need for the learning process in alpinism - it is simply not something you can just 'pick up'.
Natural Ice Protection
Ice protection can sometimes be found by an imaginative use of slings around features such as icicles or hummocks of ice which may be modified into bollards much like snow bollards (see below). The key is to learn to recognize which features are safe and then using the features if you have the energy or time to arrange them. Icicles should be viewed with caution as they may be cracked or simply too small to accept the load of a falling climber. In assessing the strength of an icicle, consider the temperature and brittleness of the ice, the diameter of the icicle and how far down the icicle you can tie it off with a sling, as you would tie off a bottomed-out piton. If you find an icicle which appears to be good you can simply girth-hitch it as shown in Figure XX, clip the ropes(s) through and carry on climbing.
An ice bollard is a 'mushroom' of ice shaped by the climber so that a runner or rappel rope slung around it will accept a load without slipping up and over the top. As a belay or rappel anchor the ice bollard is often worth the effort and can be very strong, such that the weak link in the system is rather the rope or sling than the ice. To chop an ice bollard you select a patch of good ice (perhaps looking for a natural hump which may give you a 'head start') and use the pick and adze to cut a teardrop-shaped mushroom as shown in Figure XX. The strength depends on the 'quality' of the ice, and you should familiarize yourself with the differences in ice integrity, as mentioned earlier. The bollard can vary in size depending on the ice, but I suggest a minimum diameter of 20" with a minimum depth of 6". It is crucial to undercut the ice such that the rope or sling looped around it cannot slip up over the top under a load. Remember to load the bollard downward rather than outward so that the chance of the sling slipping off are further reduced. See Figure XX.
Figure XX illustrates a method of constructing a rappel anchor by cutting two holes into the ice and threading them with a sling. This should be done with extreme caution, taking particular care to keep the load on the sling downward rather than outward.
Always look for other features to sling; trees, stumps, bushes, rock spikes, whatever. Assess their strength as best you may, sling them, and be off.
Ice Screws
The various forms of ice screws are the most common form of ice protection. Ice screws are tubular metal devices meant to be screwed into ice and clipped into with a carabiener. A variety of screws are shown in Figure XX, with notes regarding their differences.
The 'strength' of an ice screw anchor depends on the ice. A big 12" screw driven full-length into rotten ice can be extremely dangerous. On the other hand, a 9" screw driven half way into good plastic ice and tied off to reduce leverage, as you tie off a piton, can be an exceptionally strong anchor. Because you rely on the integrity of the ice you must learn to distinguish between different qualities of ice and place your screws accordingly.
Wherever you place the screw, you should follow a few rules, tempered with common sense as the situation dictates. Read the text and follow the illustrations in Figure XX.
First, if necessary, clear off any crummy, crumbly surface ice with your axe. If you need to, chop some ice away to make room for the hanger to rotate. If you have a ratchet-type screw (see Fig. XX), this may not always be necessary. Now, place your screw at about 10-15o from perpendicular to the ice surface (see Fig. XX), and begin screwing it into the ice. With some sharp models this may be possible by hand alone, which is wonderful. If not, you can use an axe or piton to gain leverage, as shown in Fig. XX. Once the screw is in, down to the eye, clip in and carry on. If the screw bottoms out, hitting rock or impenetrable ice before the whole shaft is buried, you need to tie off the screw with a sling to reduce leverage in the event of loading the screw. DO NOT attempt to get in 'just one more turn', as this could shatter the whole ice mass and you'll have to start over. Tie off screws with a full-strength runner rather than the 1/2" wide slings used for aid climbing, taking care not to allow sharp threads to cut the sling. On the worst of all placements, you may consider tying the screw off with a wired stopper or perlon-slung chock (as shown in Figure XX), which will keep the load even closer to the ice than a sling. If you do this, remember to cinch the stopper or hex tightly so that they don't come off or work their way up the screw with rope drag as you continue leading. See Figure XX.
Finally, clip the rope through, or tie in (if it's part of a belay anchor). If you need to place a runner to reduce rope-drag, consider threading a sling through the screw-eye or the hanger, then clipping this to the rope. This saves a carabiener, as shown in Figure XX. However, if the hanger is thin steel it may cut the sling in a fall, so use this method only on screws with robust clip-in eyes. Having done all this, the screw is placed and you may carry on in relative peace, for a few minutes, anyway.
When you place ice screws as belay anchors, place each at least two feet apart from the other and try to identify different ice masses to screw into. For an ice belay I suggest a minimum of two screws; three or four would be better, particularly if the belayer will be hanging on (loading) the screws as the leader comes up and as the next lead is made. A constant loading like this can generate pressure on the ice such that the screw melts right out of its placement. One way to protect against this is to pack some snow over screws so that they don't conduct sunlight heat down the shaft. You may also use a mitten or anything else at hand; just keep the screw from direct sunlight, particularly in the case of prolonged loads. Finally, when placing ice screws as belay anchors remember the BERT system; keep the load equalized. Figures XX and XX illustrate a number of poor and excellent ice belays on ice screws and other alpine equipment. Adapt as the situation dictates and remember to keep an eye out for potential rock protection nearby.
To remove an ice screw you just unscrew it from the ice. Well, that's the idea, anyway. Sometimes you'll have to hack at the ice around the screw for an apparent eternity, cursing your leader with a loathing you never thought possible. Screws will be filled with a core of ice after being placed, and this may be frozen at the base of the screw, making it difficult to remove. Happily, in some cases you can just tap the screw on the head once or twice to break this bond, and it should come out very easily. If not, consider using your axe or a piton as a lever to unscrew the placement (a piton is less liable to break than a pick). If you don't remove the core of ice from the screw it won't be possible to place it again. You may be able to shove the core out of the screw with a firm push of your finger or an axe pick (particularly if you spray the inside with WD-40 on occasion). If not, consider warming the screw inside your jacket (a nasty procedure). Don't bang the screw against rock or your ice tools; this just damages the threads and will rarely help get out the ice core.
You can rack screws three at a time (or however you please) on carabieners on your harness gear loops. If you're going off on an extended ice pitch, you may want to prepare a number of 'quickdraws' - short (or shortened) slings with carabieners on each end - to quickly clip into and/or tie off screws as you lead. Whatever you do, rack your hardware so you can get hold of any piece instantly.
For the beginner I suggest a range of ice screws; carry a few ratcheting screws, which you can place and remove in tight spots, as well as some extra-long (and a few short) 'standard' ice screws. There are some very light-weight and relatively cheap titanium screws available from the Russian Federation, but these are reputed to be rather weak. If you place them on lead, consider using them in intervals with other, stronger screws. On a glacier ascent, a number of screw-in screw-out screws will probably be sufficient. If on mixed terrain, you'll want to carry a few ice pitons as well, for the places too confined to work a normal (non-ratcheting) screw-in. The ice piton can be hacked out of the ice if necessary, and, though this is a laborious task, at least the leader was able to get in some protection on the lead.
Screws often come with a little cap which protects the bit, but these are just a nuisance on the climb. Leave them in the car and just be careful not to gouge yourself or soft equipment (rope, slings, etc.) with them.
Ice Pitons
Ice pitons come in a number of forms. Most today are the drive-in, screw-out type. These are driven into the ice with a hammer and screwed out with the hand or a lever. Place them at the same angle as regular screws, hammer carefully (be careful to avoid hitting the shaft to the sides, as this will break the ice) and tie off or clip in as needed. There is little to say about these screws except that they tend to fracture ice more than screw-in screw-out screws simply because of the blows of the hammer. Well-placed in good ice, however, they are excellent anchors, and any rack should have a few ice pitons.
The Hook
The Spectre is a piece of protection built by Black Diamond. It is essentially a technical ice tool minus the shaft. The hook may be used to hook ice, or may be hammered into ice like an ice piton. In desperation, it can also be hammered into a crack like a rock piton, or even into a constricting crack in ice. You can also use if as an aid on verglassed rock, or even to aid the worst ice sections. The Spectre is an excellent tool, and carrying one or two is almost always a good idea.
Improvised Ice Anchors
There are a number of improvisations you can use to protect yourself on ice. The most ingenious is the 'ice-hourglass', a v-shaped tube formed by driving two screws into the ice towards each other so that their tunnels intersect and create a single tube. This is threaded with a sling or appropriate-diameter cord, which is tied with a water-knot or fisherman's knot, accordingly, and clipped into, or rappelled from. The 'ice-hourglass' method has been shown to be plenty strong for rappels when produced in decent ice.
Another improvised method is to carry some plumbing conduit (of whatever diameter your screws are) and use 8-12" lengths of this as 'poor-man's screws'. As shown in Figure XX, you bore a hole in the ice with a normal ice screw, 'plug in' the conduit, and tie it off at the surface with a clove hitch so that it won't rotate when loaded. These 'poor man's' devices shouldn't be used on difficult leads unless it is absolutely necessary (e.g., you've dropped all but one screw !). However, on long ice pitches, perhaps when you have a 100m rope and are going the full length because of the relatively easy terrain, this method can save precious screws for the belays and lighten your load. Remember, though, this is an improvised method; plumbing conduit is not ice-screw material, and you should be placing these only on terrain where a fall is very unlikely.
Figure XX illustrates the use of two conduit lengths, equalized and ready to be loaded. Remember not to place them too close to one another.
Climbing Alpine Ice
It's impossible to generalize on what 'type' of ice you may encounter on alpine climbs. Some routes (e.g. thickly-iced gullies) may follow melt-water ice the whole way. Others can follow glacial ice from bottom to top and down again, and other routes will involve ice and rock in the same area; mixed climbing. As in rock-climbing, the key is versatility. You must be able to manage on all types of ice.
You need to practice, of course, before you set off for a 'real' climb. How much you can practice generally depends on where you live; you may be within reasonable driving distance of a glacier, where you can practice in crevasses or icefalls. You may also be able to get to waterfalls which freeze periodically, providing you with excellent difficult-ice training; consider yourself lucky and take advantage of the opportunities. If you're not so lucky, though, you may occasionally climb dead trees with axes and crampons, or head to some brick wall and traverse along it's length or up and over the top (this blunts your tools but is good strength and balance training). In the urban jungle you can often find a chain-link fence which can be hooked and front-pointed up, or along, with a pair of axes and crampons. As for myself, while living in northern England I used to practice by going to an abandoned quarry where a 20' vertical face of compacted mud and shale provided me with many 'afternoon adventures' (I was truly desperate for action !).
Leading , Belaying and General Considerations
Leading ice on alpine routes requires a balance of speed, efficiency and safety. You must keep going, as the longer you're on the ice the more tired you become. You must place protection speedily and well, again to combat increasing weariness. You must also be safe, protecting yourself and your second as the situation demands. I suggest that in practice sessions, before rushing off to lead a pitch, you play around at the base of the climb with your ice tools, learning how hard to strike the ice, what natural features may and may not be of use, whatever. Each climb will differ because of changing temperature, the tools you happen to be using, your state of mind, your physical state and other variables common to your particular area. Keep in mind these changing variables and try to monitor them as you climb; learn the range of variation and how the variables interact to produce certain conditions.
In this book I am not attempting to teach you the basics of ice climbing; I am addressing considerations for the climber on a technical alpine route which requires more than what you can learn from a general mountaineering text or course. You need to learn to climb easy terrain and front-point before you go on to more difficult terrain.
Having said this, try hardest in your practice sessions to get over the common error of over-placing your tools. As the ice gets harder to climb, this becomes harder to do, but you must learn not to set your picks to the hilt (figuratively, anyway) at each throw. If you do you'll waste priceless time (as measured by your agonized muscles) working the picks out, and you'll probably end up breaking at least one pick.
Belaying on ice requires the same safety measures as on rock, with some additions; you must place ice anchors in different ice masses, either naturally-occurring ones or by separating them by about two feet or so (see more on this below). Again, as on rock, with absolutely bombproof anchors (such as two perfect screws fully sunk into excellent ice) you can save time and effort by using the direct belay. See Figure XX for some points on direct belays on ice.
Easy Ice
Easy ice is just that - easy. The angle is between too low (which would force you to crouch too much) and too high (which would force you to hang from your tools). The ice itself is easy to place screws in and doesn't shatter, and accepts your tools with grace. When you come across such terrain, you'll know it because you'll be smiling. On such ice, the axes are used more for balance than for hanging and support. Even moderately steep ice (see Figure XX) can be easily climbed if you relax and move efficiently. Easy ice sections should be dispensed with as quickly as possible; they are a blessing, providing rather simple climbing; just plug in ice screws at intervals you deem safe. I suggest - for easy ice - placing a screw every thirty feet or so, meaning you carry ten screws for a 100m lead or five for a 50m lead. Though this means a major fall if you do come off (at least a 60-footer!), it is easy ice and you should not be coming off. If this is too hairy for your particular terrain, consider occasionally placing two screws (about three feet apart and equalized) rather than one, or just tighten up the interval between screws.
It's somewhat absurd to give such general estimates, though, as easy ice may often contain sections of much more difficult ice, which need more protection. Do as you see fit. Remember this, though - however easy the ice is, do not run out the rope without protection. If, you run out a 100-meter rope and suddenly get a cramp, or get pegged in the face with a falling rock, or whatever, you're in for a 660 foot fall; the belay will be totally annihilated and you and your partner will make headlines in Accidents in North American Mountaineering. Probably not quite the claim to fame you had envisioned.
On a 50-meter lead you may feel secure with only two or three screws on the whole lead. Remember, here I am talking about easy ice where falling is a remote possibility. One good way to speed up easy ice sections is to make as few tool placements as necessary. Place one axe securely, the other for balance, then step up as high as balance allows, place the balance axe as your next secure placement, and then remove the previous secure axe. This method is shown in Figure XX and it can save a lot of time compared to always placing two bomb-proof axes.
In a later chapter I address a technique used for climbing easy rock or snow: this is simul-climbing, where the leader and second (roped together) climb at the same time, the leader placing gear and the second retrieving it 'on the hoof'. I would strongly suggest not simul-climbing on any ice - even easy ice - until you and your partner are such masters that you are certain not to make mistakes (you may never feel confident enough; that's better than getting over-confident without basis). The problem here is that even a small mistake can result in total failure (falling) more often than on rock or snow. You may snag a crampon in a strap, or have a tool bounce off the ice and hit you in the face, or have a tool break, or have a crampon come off, or any number of other 'minor' problems, and the consequence can be disaster. On rock and snow, when you're free-climbing at least, you're not so dependent on your technology.
Steeper and More Difficult Ice
When the ice steepens and/or becomes reluctant to accept protection, or ice tools, you are into much more difficult climbing. As mentioned before, the line between easy and difficult (and 'safe' and 'dangerous') is often very thin, but it is usually readily apparent; you know when you've wandered into hard ice! The main thing is that the ice is steeper and your axes have to bear more weight, as shown in Figure XX.
On such difficult ice you must be more prepared for a fall, but at the same time you must be more careful that you don't fall in the first place. Place more protection (see below) and climb smoothly; don't panic.
Difficult ice can slow you down like aid climbing, but there is a difference. In A1 and A2 aid climbing (and even some A3) the higher you get, the less chance that a fall will really be that big a deal. On ice, with all the sharp instruments and the possibility that your protection is not so good, the consequence of a fall can be far more serious. For this reason, tackle difficult ice sections with the mentality that you can move fast later, and that for the moment you need to give the ice all your attention, however long it takes. Protect as best you can. On a 50-meter lead you might place a screw every 15 feet (say, just less than three body lengths). Again, these are general rules of thumb, and you need to act according to the terrain. There is another line you may cross here. It is that of over-protection on ice. It's not that you're placing too much protection, but that the more often you do the old 'stop-and-go' to place protection, the more tired you get and the less you can concentrate on just getting up the ice. This line is not as easy to identify than that between easy and hard ice, but it's definitely as important. Don't exhaust yourself to the point of falling by stopping every six feet to put in a screw. Place your tools with infinite care, move smoothly and, just when you begin to feel nervous, stop and place a screw. The protection intervals here are up to you and the myriad circumstances of the climb.
On pure ice lines, try to place as many hand-driven screws as possible on the lead; let the belayer use the drive-ins and other difficult-to-place protection for their anchors. You'll both be better off - you as you lead and the second as they remove the placements.
Difficult ice may be steep or rotten or a combination of the two, perhaps with other problems thrown in as well (such as an incessant shower of ice-water). Learn to deal with these on practice climbs where you can push your limits in some safety.
Thin Ice
Thin ice is a most challenging climbing media. Much of it may be climbed as one climbs on verglassed rock. You may sometimes find it easiest to smash the ice and use the rock beneath, though over the course of a whole pitch this could be too much trouble - for resting, though, and finding protection cracks, it is good to remember this option. Take care to warn your belayer before you send a hundred pounds of ice their way.
HOOK, don't HACK. This is rule 1. A normal throw, or even a gentle one, can literally shatter your only chance of success in an explosion of ice chips. Place your pick on an ice ledge, or ever so gently chip or scrape one out of the ice, and apply a steady pull. Push with your legs as much as you can and don't move that shaft.
Rule 2 is that you must take extra care to place protection. Thin ice usually won't accept any normal ice protection (except perhaps the Spectre), so you'll do best to find some rock (it may be all too available anyway) and nail in a thin piton or place an SLCD. SLCD's take most climbers less time and energy to place than other pieces, and placing secure protection quickly will be near the top of your list of priorities when you're strung out on a horrific lead.
Keep in mind that on thin ice you're relying heavily on your technology (ice tools and crampons) on an unstable media (thin ice stuck to rock); either or both may fail, regardless of your skill as a climber. Always get in some good protection as soon as you set off so that if you fall early in the lead you won't plummet down past the belayer and directly load the belay anchors.
Figure XX illustrates a climber using thin-ice techniques - read the comments, keep the principles in mind and go out and practice, practice, practice.
Rotten Ice
This can be even worse than thin ice, and - to your despair - is often found at the same time as thin ice and poor rock, producing some of the most hair-raising climbing imaginable. If you hear water gurgling under a thin, bubble-pocked sheath of ice, beware. If you hear popping, groaning, cracking or other noises, you will be wise to take extreme care. Protection ? Probably none. Look for rock protection. In desperation, you may need to use a runner to sling two holes punched in the ice, as shown in Figure XX. Consider using your adze and hammer-head to gain purchase, as illustrated in Figure XX. As a last resort, consider aid if it's within your book of ethics. If you can't find any protection, consider a different route. Ask yourself if it would be better to return some other day, or if it's possible to find an alternative.
It's invaluable experience to go to your nearest ice-climbing area and seek out the thinnest smears and the nastiest, most rotten, dripping gullies. Climbing these 'non-routes' while everyone else is on thick, plastic ice, happily hooking up holes left by previous climbers, will be about as close to real alpine conditions as you can get - there will be no clues for where to go, you will be alone and the conditions will be less than perfect; three key ingredients of adventure and alpinism.
Descending Alpine Ice
To get down icy terrain you can employ the same techniques as in rock descent. Down-climbing and rappelling are critical here.
As for down-climbing, follow the suggestions given for rock down-climbing. Use your legs as much as possible, and on icy terrain belay as much as possible. Use your tools as you see fit; here even more ethics may be dropped like a bad habit. Down-climbing icy rock can be a nightmare without the impediment of rules. Aid down short, steep steps, hang off your axes, grab bushes - whatever. Remember that while an easy ice slope is easy to get up, descending it with a pack on (making you top-heavy) can be extremely dangerous; self-arrest on ice will be very difficult if not impossible, so be prepared to belay descents of even very easy ice you may have ascended unroped (as on low-angled easy slopes at the beginning of a climb).
When you need to rappel, take extra care around the rope while wearing your crampons. Always back up your descent with a prussik; your chances of getting snagged are increased, as the rope will likely be icy, your hands may be frozen and your crampons or the tools dangling from your harness may easily snag in cracks or on ledges. If the rope is really icy, consider an improvised method (see the section on Improvised Rappel Devices) rather than forcing it through your normal device and hoping for the best.

CHAPTER 3
ALPINE SNOW CLIMBING

Like ice, snow is a product of the natural world, and the variety of snow types is effectively infinite. As an alpinist you must learn to distinguish between many different types of snow; which are good for climbing, which are avalanche-prone, which are impossible to cross without skis or snow-shoes and so forth. You must balance this wide knowledge with a grasp of the principles which generate different snow conditions. Observe the different types of snow you encounter on different climbs; you'll soon be able to tell a lot about conditions by just looking at the various ripples, drifts and other snow features in alpine terrain, and you may soon begin to predict what sort of snow lies on what particular terrain. And then, just as you get confident and cocky, you'll run into something completely unpredictable and seemingly unearthly in it's defiance of the 'laws' you've come to rely on. Nature at work. You must always be learning.
Snow Dangers
The main dangers of snow are that it might avalanche, massed clumps of it may collapse at any time and that it might conceal crevasses or other holes, such as moats. Such dangers are generally illustrated in Figure XX.
Avalanche
One of the most important alpine skills is to be able to assess avalanche danger. This is not something you can learn quickly or from a book. Read Avalanche Safety for Skiers and Climbers by Tony Daffern as a start, and apply that theoretical knowledge to real terrain. When you can't get out to the mountains, look at photographs of mountains in climbing magazines; try to determine where avalanches are likely to occur. Look at the marked routes on the mountains; did the climbers avoid particular areas? Perhaps they did, perhaps the didn't. Ask yourself, 'where would I climb, in theory, on this mountain?'. While most avalanches occur within a few days of major snowfall, and on particular slopes, most is not all. Some climbers are caught in avalanches they simply couldn't predict in their situation or with their level of knowledge. Others climb into dangerous terrain, knowingly or not, and start the avalanche themselves. This is a serious business. I include the following guidelines with some reservation; you may be tempted to assume that if you can deal with these points, you can avoid danger. This is not the case. Get practical experience and never let your guard down; avalanches can strike suddenly from 'nowhere'.
Avalanches are basically the parting of two layers of snow such that the upper layer, for whatever reason, is no longer bonded to the lower layer and begins to slide with gravity. Consider a heavy fall of new dry snow onto a hard, firmly settled old snow surface. With enough new snow accumulation the bond between the two layers will part, and the new snow will slide on top of the old snow surface. This is the basic principle to keep in mind. If you can dig a trench to examine a cross-section of the snow you're on, it may be possible to identify such layering. Read Tony Daffern's book for more on this type of investigation, and tailor that knowledge to your situation on a climb. Figure XX illustrates some generic terrain and general points on avalanche danger.
An avalanche can occur on slopes from about 15 to 50 degrees in steepness. Most occur in the range between 30 to 50 degrees. Below 30 there is often too much friction to keep an avalanche going if it starts, and above 50 degrees most slopes will slough off new snow rather than accumulate it in thick blankets to avalanche later. An avalanche may occur during a heavy snowfall or at any time during the next one to three days. Do not assume that if the weather has been calm for a long time there won't be an avalanche. An avalanche may occur at any time during or after a large accumulation of snow has been blown onto a slope by the wind. An avalanche may also occur when the appropriate slope is subjected to an increase in temperature (this may also trigger cornice and ice-tower, or serac , falls). Figure XX illustrates these conditions.
Avalanches can occur on almost any terrain. However, ridge-crests and buttresses which are so steep that snow doesn't have much chance of accumulating are often safer than other terrain, such as gullies, bowls or blank slopes. This is why buttresses and ridges often make 'safer' climbs than faces on which snow can accumulate or which are scoured by avalanches dropping down from above. In storms where the rate of snowfall is relatively uniform it may be possible to time these avalanches and plan your movement accordingly (though this is a pretty desperate measure). While the extreme crest of a ridge is often safe from immediate avalanche danger, snow beneath the lee-side of ridge-crests may accumulate with wind to produce wind-slab avalanches. See Figure XX.
Avalanches can blast down a face with terrific speed and force. Stay off - and out from under - lee-slopes. Wet snow avalanches can engulf a climber like a river, then freeze solid, entombing them in a slurry which hardens like quick-drying cement. This is no way to check out; learn about avalanche terrain and avoid it like the plague. These notes are only an introduction to a nebulous and complex topic, though with time avoiding dangerous avalanche terrain, in route-planning and on the mountain, should become almost automatic to the alpinist; but not so automatic that one works with a 'formula' mentality. Always consider the application of your theory to the particular circumstances at hand.
Avalanche Safety for The Alpine Team of Two
If you are forced to cross potential avalanche terrain (and be certain, first, that there is no other way) there are a few precautions you can take. First, determine the shortest possible path across the danger area. Next, unfasten all the buckles on your backpack. In the tumbling mass of an avalanche you may need to cast off your pack to stay 'afloat'. Try to climb under or near large rock or ice outcrops which may deflect avalanches from above, or at least provide some shelter. Some climbers carry an 'avalanche cord', a long (say 30m) red or black string tied to their harness. On the way across the avalanche terrain, the string just drags behind, and if you're avalanched and buried, some of the cord may remain on the surface and be spotted by your partner, giving them some idea of where you are. Obviously this is a pretty thin proposal, but it's better than nothing. Go across the slope one at a time. It's probably better not to belay unless you can get the world's greatest bombproof anchors. Consider that your anchors will have to resist the force of tons of snow dragging at your partner. If they rip out you will be sucked into the avalanche by your partner. If the slope is so exposed and dangerous that you need a rope in case you fall, you're in a tight spot and need to do some thinking. Memorize all of this, read more and keep your mind flexible; adapt to the situation at hand.
If you're the unlucky one and get avalanched on the way across the slope, the first thing to do is yell so that your partner, who may not be looking at that moment, knows something is wrong. At the same time, try to throw off your backpack. If things get worse you won't want it dragging you down. It might be a disaster to lose your pack in a remote alpine area, but at least if you survive you can improvise and have some chance at survival. The standard advice now is to attempt to 'swim' upwards through the snow, trying to stay near the surface and trying to get to the side of the avalanche rather than staying in the middle of the chaos. Adapt as the situation demands. If you feel yourself going under you need to protect your airway; close your mouth and cover it with your hands. When you come to a stop, immediately try to thrust your arms forward to create an air cavity. If you are squashed down and cannot move arms or legs or anything, start breathing slowly and evenly and hope that your partner was paying attention. If it's possible to move, try to get oriented. Let a bit of drool creep out of your mouth and note where in slides to indicate what is up and what is down. If possible, start digging upwards. Try to stay optimistic; at least you've survived the avalanche thus far - your neck may just as easily have been broken moments ago. Keep digging. Perhaps you will soon emerge on the surface. Perhaps not.
If your partner is avalanched try to keep an eye on them as they go down. Consider that another avalanche may come down this very same path before you rush out to start searching. If you lose track of the avalanched climber, and after a brief search you see no sign of them or their avalanche cord, keep an eye out for any of their climbing gear (such as their backpack) which may give you an idea of where they are. If there are just two of you and one is buried, things are going to be grim, particularly if you haven't brought along an avalanche probe of some sort (a long thin pole, such as a telescoping ski pole) which can be used to poke down into the snow in hopes of finding the buried person. If you have to start probing, do it systematically, not at random. Pick the most likely area and start probing in some efficient pattern. You may use a tent-pole if you've got one and the snow has not yet 'set up' too hard, If you find your partner you're going to have to start digging, quickly. If you have a shovel, use it. If not, perhaps your helmet will work. Work as fast as possible; after about two hours the chances that the buried person will still be alive are minimal.
Figure XX illustrates some of the points outlined above.
Avoid getting wiped out by avalanche by totally avoiding avalanche terrain. The standard two-person alpine party just can't hope to stand up to burial, rescue and all of the complications; avalanches have the upper hand by a long shot. Do not trifle with avalanche danger. If the route you've been dreaming for was heavily laden with snow last night, keep dreaming. The mountain will be there when you come back later. Develop the patience to retreat repeatedly from a route when your common sense tells you to; you may have to wait years for a particular route, but that's better than risking it all because you're impatient; go climb another route !
Cornices and Crevasse Bridges
On ridges, and beneath them, one must be aware of cornices, blobs or other formations of snow which generally form on the lee side of the ridge due to wind. These may break free in periods of warming, or they may be broken off by the weight of climbers on the ridge. Unfortunately for those who like to predict things, cornices also break off seemingly at random as structural weaknesses finally succumb to gravity.
If you're on a corniced ridge, stay well clear of the edge of the cornice which hangs out over the side of the ridge. A useful rule of thumb is to consider that if a cornice does come off, it will be cleaved off at an angle roughly equal to that of the ridge supporting it. See Fig. XX for the principle here. Remember, however, that this is a rule of thumb, and that cornices may break off well back from the predicted line of cleavage. Try to climb well below the line of cleavage. As the flank of the ridge steepens, however, this gets to be difficult and dangerous, and you will have to make a compromise.
Crevasses, the cracks in glaciers, come in all sizes, from little incisions beneath your boots to enormous chasms a hundred feet or more in width, with dimensions that simply dwarf the human scale. Crevasses or other unusual holes may be hidden by a light cap of snow, however, so you must take precautions on glaciers. See the chapter on Glacier Travel for the proper procedures for roping up, traveling, belaying and rescuing on glaciers, and, again, don't just head out thinking that this book has 'prepared' you for the dangers.
Belaying in Snow and Snow Anchors
Belaying on snow can be much more comfortable than on rock or ice. You can sometimes cut a giant bucket seat with a pair of axes or your helmet or a shovel, plop down inside it and enjoy the (relative) comfort for a change. Still, in more difficult terrain, you should have good anchors first, however secure your bucket feels. The direct belays described for ice and rock are pretty rare except in the best snow, with the axe-belay (see the following sections). Snow anchors just usually aren't bombproof enough.
The cutting of a belay seat or belay-stance in snow is not just for comfort. When the snow is really loose and your anchors are poor you can substantially increase your belay safety by settling deep into a snow-seat and using your body as a giant anchor. This is, of course, only good for the leader belaying a second up a slope as the load will pull the belayer downwards and into the snow seat, not upwards. If you can get in some standard snow anchors, clip to them with equalized slings.
You may find that your rope becomes so frozen and caked with snow that it won't fit through your belay device. You might be forced to use the Munter Hitch (see Figure XX). In the worst case (no anchors) you may be forced to just use a hip belay, in which the rope is passed around your hips (under your backpack so that if loaded it won't just slip up over your head) as shown in Figure XX.
On easier sections you may want to belay with one of a few basic techniques (such as the infamous boot-axe belay) illustrated in Figure XX. On more technical alpine ascents, snow is often only encountered on the approach or descent; thus you have to decide whether carrying any snow anchors is worth the effort. If you're going to spend any time on a glacier, at least one picket (carried by the second climber so they can use it as a rescue anchor) should be the minimum. If there's no glacier and you only expect snow on the approach or descent, you may decide to forfeit special snow anchors altogether and improvise with bollards (see below); if so, make sure you have spent a good practice session or two getting to know the variables in bollard construction and evaluation.
Natural Snow Anchors : The Bollard
A snow bollard is an anchor cut from the snow rather than an item placed in the snow. The bollard (or mushroom) supports a load by having the load distributed over a large area. Figure XX illustrates the principle. This is basically the same as an ice bollard, which is described in the section Natural Ice Anchors. If you can place any other type of snow anchor, I would suggest that you do because bollards can be dangerously deceptive, giving the appearance of a good anchor and failing under a real load. Nevertheless, if you are out of gear and need an anchor in snow, the bollard is one of the main options. Bollards are often used as belay anchors and in good conditions may be used as rappel anchors.
To cut a bollard, find some snow which is deep, relatively well consolidated and free of cracks or other obvious weaknesses. Now, using the adze of your axe, chop or scoop a fat, roughly teardrop-shaped moat into the snow, with the narrower end of the teardrop pointing towards the direction of the load. The dimensions of the bollard must be dependent on the consistency of the snow. In very hard, packed snow, it may measure about 3 feet in diameter. In loose snow, where you may be desperate, you may have to cut a bollard 6 feet wide, or larger. The moat should cut under the bollard somewhat so that the rope or sling will not slip up and over the top, but not so deep that the undercut weakens the bollard. In some cases this is a fine line to discern, so, again, I suggest you spend a day on a glacier trying all of these methods and getting accustomed to using them in all sorts of snow conditions. Once the bollard is cut, loop a long sling (or, if rappelling, the rope) around the bollard and clip into the sling. Figure XX illustrates the cutting and general dimensions of snow bollards.
In most cases it's a good idea to reinforce the bollard by placing some barrier between the rope and the snow so that the rope does not constrict under the load and slice the top off the bollard. A pair of ice axes may be used, or a backpack, or skis. Whatever you use, try to keep as much of the rope from contact with the snow as possible. Figure XX illustrates a number of reinforcement ideas. If you're rappelling off a snow bollard you can reinforce it with a bit of your sleeping mat, chopped off with an axe. Not very pretty, but it's better than leaving an ice tool.
The main thing to remember about snow bollards is that it's difficult to estimate their strength. Test a bollard by applying a load to the sling. If the rope or sling digs in and undercuts the bollard too far, cut a new one: the next load on that bollard may slice off the top. If the sling or rope remains firm, and the bollard seems to be OK, reinforce it anyway with a pair of axes or something else. You can't be too safe with bollards.
Artificial Snow Anchors : Pickets and Deadmen
There are two basic ready-made tools for snow protection: the picket and the deadman. Both work on the same principle - that an item with a large surface area buried in snow will be resistant to pull in a certain direction because of the snow in front of the item. This concept is best illustrated in Fig. XX.
The picket is a length of metal (usually aluminum) with a t-shaped (or sometimes tubular) cross-section. The picket is thrust into the snow until most of it is buried, and then clipped with a carabiener or tied off with a sling, and the rope clipped through this as with any other piece of protection. If you fall, the weight comes onto the picket and, if you have properly placed it, and the snow is quite well consolidated, it will act as an anchor. See Fig. XX. Placing pickets is relatively easy once you know the principle; you can place them in many types of snow, though only a few types will really provide enough resistance to act as an effective anchor. To place a picket you simply place it at about 5 degrees back from perpendicular to the snow surface, and away from the load, and then push it down into the snow. Fig. XX illustrates the principle. Sometimes you may need to push quite hard, or even use a hammer to drive the picket home. In these cases the snow is quite hard and it's likely that the picket will be relatively secure. On the other hand, when you can push the picket in with just a little pressure, or just drop it into the snow, it's likely that the snow is too loose to really provide any support. In this case it might be worth digging beneath the snow to find rock or ice for another type of anchor.
If the snow is nicely consolidated, but the picket 'bottoms out' and hits ice, or rock, before the entire length is buried, you can tie it off with a sling, as you would a piton or a screw. Use a girth-hitch rather than just looping a sling over the picket, as shown in Figure XX. Some pickets are drilled with lightening holes which may be clipped through with a carabiener. These are easier to 'tie off' by simply clipping the hole closest to the snow surface. Doing this saves a sling and is safer than using the girth-hitch, which can slide upwards and off of the picket in some cases. See Fig. XX. However, if the closest hole is 1" or more from the snow, tie it off with a sling.
One the picket is placed, remember that if you are moving upward above it, rope drag may pull it up and out of it's slot; the picket has no resistance in this direction of pull and can easily come out. If it looks like this may happen it's a good idea to clip a sling to the picket to relieve some of the rope drag. In this case, you can save a carabiener by girth-hitching the picket directly through a clip-in hole and then clipping to the rope with a carabiener on the sling. These alternative methods are illustrated in Fig. XX. If you find it impossible to remove the picket with an upward pull on the carabiener, you can slot an axe through the carabiener and either lever it out or pull (don't jerk) with both arms, as shown in Figure XX. Be careful that you don't suddenly dislodge the picket suddenly and lose your balance.
The most common other snow anchor is the deadman. This is a plate of metal (again, usually aluminum) which is buried in the snow such that it will dig deeper into the snow as a pull is applied to the clip-in cable. See Fig. XX. Placing a deadman properly takes a bit more practice than placing a picket. See Fig. XX for the procedure. You first find a suitable area of snow, preferably well consolidated. Many times there is a layer of relatively loose new snow on top of a layer of more consolidated snow. In this case, clear off some of the surface snow. You then use an axe to cut a 't-shaped' slot in the snow to the dimensions of your deadman and cable. The deadman plate must be tilted about 30 or 40 degrees back from perpendicular to the snow surface so that when weight is applied it will bury itself deeper into the snow rather than shear out (if the angle is to great) or jump out (if the angle is too low). Now you drop the deadman into the slot and clip into the cable. You must be sure that the weight will come onto the lower half of the clip-in cable; this is what pulls the deadman deeper into the snow. Stress applied to the upper cable will yank the deadman up and out of it's slot, though this is avoided on most models by having a longer upper cable. See Fig. XX. The best way to test the deadman is to pull on the clip-in cable. If the deadman rises up in the slot, you should remove the deadman and cut the cable-slot deeper so that the lower cable is not on any sort of a hump. See Fig. XX. To properly set the deadman, give the cable a few firm tugs.
Improvised Snow Anchors
If you have to protect a section of snow, and you don't have a picket or a deadman, and can't cut a bollard, you can improvise using the deadman/picket principle; bury an object or objects in the snow and rely on their surface area to prevent them from coming out with a pull.
The most obvious items to place are your ice axes. If you can shove the axes into the snow about perpendicular to - or slightly tilted back from - the surface, up to the head, and tie them off with slings (or their wrist-loops), you may have anchors which are, at least, better than nothing. The strength of the axe belay depends on the consistency of the snow (sometimes it is perfect and sometimes it is treacherous), the angle of the shaft in relation to the load and surface, and whether or not the belayer leans on the head of the axe or not (if it is a simple axe belay). This is advisable. See Figure XX. The improvised-axe belay is often used on relatively easy snow pitches where you're belaying not so much to stop major falls, but to catch a slip where the consequence may be a long and deadly tumble down an endless slope. The leader leads off, protecting the pitch with deadmen or pickets, sets the axes into the snow and belays off of them. When you do this, remember that a pair of axe shafts are probably not as secure as a good dead-man or picket, and advise your partner to climb with caution. On hearing this, they probably will. You can improve the strength of the axe-picket belay by using two axes in the 'T' configuration, as shown in Figure XX.
If you cannot spare your axes and need a snow anchor, consider burying some other large object. You can bury a ski (place it perpendicular to the load, and dig a t-shaped trench first to accommodate the ski and the sling) and tie it off with a sling, or perhaps a backpack. To bury a backpack requires a rather large hole, and you probably won't do this unless things get pretty desperate (whatever you bury, make sure the wall of the pit is angled such that the item is pulled deeper into snow and not up and out of it, as shown in Figure XX). Still, consider every option; what are you carrying that might serve as a large surface ? Perhaps you can use your helmet, if you can rig it securely with a sling (do not clip the straps on the helmet - they will rip straight out). Of course, also consider cutting a bollard, as described above. Look for natural features which may help; a 'ready-made' bollard (be extremely cautious with these !), a bump of rock projecting from the snow, around which you can cut a moat, or perhaps you can dig under the snow for ice or rock, or at least firm snow. Remember that any buried item attached with a sling must have a sling-moat cut so that if the anchor is loaded it won't be jerked up and out of the snow like a poorly-placed deadman. Figure XX illustrates a number of improvised snow anchors.
For some climbs where you expect long and dangerous snow descents, consider making a few lightweight pickets at home. These can be made from 11/2" diameter aluminum tubing in 2- or 3-foot lengths (or more-consider the consistency of the snow you expect to encounter). They weigh little and can cost nothing if you scavenge them from a construction-site dumpster. After sawing them off, tape the ends or file them to prevent them cutting rope, Gore-Tex or flesh. On the climb, hammer or shove them down, tie them off and use them as rappel anchors, or just as support for hairy sections.
Snow Climbing Techniques
On any snow, first assess the avalanche danger (see above). If you're sure that the slope is not going to avalanche, you can start climbing. The conditions - angle, your target, etc. - will determine precisely which technique is best for the slope you're on.
Know how to self-arrest. This is a basic skill you need to be good at. It's worth an afternoon's practice to learn how to stop yourself when flipped upside down, or otherwise not in the textbook positions.
Most steep, technical alpine climbs involve some snow climbing on either the low-angled apron beneath the climb or on shoulders and ridges used as descent routes. Some climbs, however, especially on ridges, can involve a lot of snow climbing. Whatever the case with your particular route, you need to be prepared to climb snow. On a lot of snow you'll be able to simul-climb, making quick work of long slopes. On a lot of the snow that you simul-climb you may feel that roping up is a bother, but you should be aware of the consequence of error. If a steep but easy snow slope leads up to your route and you start off just plodding upwards, your can quickly find yourself very exposed - a slip and tumble could take you thousands of feet, perhaps into the bergschrund or other crevasses below. Simul-climbing with a short, taut rope between the climbers (even without any pickets or other snow protection) is probably the safest way to go, even on easy slopes. Climbing together but unroped is rather stupid anyway.
While most snow will be relatively easy to climb, there will come a time where you encounter strange deep, steep and loose snow, making for the some of the most unnerving climbing around. In these situations you must use your body as a large anchor, swimming upwards, burying your arms up to the shoulders for purchase and generally doing all you can to get to a secure belay. There is little that can be taught here - just remember to look for ice or rock protection once in a while. The second climber will have a rough time as the 'holds' will have all been crushed away by your ascent; belay with pity.
Low-Angle and Medium-Angle Snow
On low-angled, tedious slopes it's easy to find yourself just plodding along, step-kicking with the front third of your boot. Remember that you can save precious energy by zig-zagging up the slope, or at least rotating your feet to the side for more purchase, as in Figure XX. It feels as if step-kicking with just the first third of your boot is efficient, because this is the most natural movement. However, this method takes a lot of energy as your calves are taking a lot of the stress trying to keep your heels up. If you turn your feet sideways you put most of the stress on your bones, not your muscles. This can be awkward and counter-intuitive at first, but it will save energy for more demanding sections of the climb.
On moderate-angled snow slopes, you can still use all ten points of each crampon, but may occasionally be forced to step-kick. Do as necessary, place the occasional picket and use the least tiring method possible.
Steep Snow
On yet steeper snow you may have to step-kick with the front portion of your boot, somewhat like front-pointing on ice. This is strenuous (unless you can kick deep holds) but can be effective and secure. Try to kick downward, producing steps sloping into the snow, so that your weight is applied on the toe of your boot and not on your heels or the ball of your foot. If you need to stop for a moment, cut or kick a large step in the snow. If possible, grab your axes by the heads and thrust the shaft into the snow as far as you can. On some types of snow it may be necessary to use the adze of your axe thrust into the snow, as illustrated in Fig. XX, for support.
When snow gets really steep, consider using your axe picks in the daggering position. Grab the heads of the axes and sink the picks in as deep as possible. Use these holds mainly to keep your balance rather than for really yarding up on them. Divide the work between these holds and your legs. The legs should do most of the work. Figure XX illustrates a person daggering up a slope. On steep but loose snow, you might have some success using the adze of an axe in the daggering position, as shown in Fig. XX.
When traversing steep snow you can gain some purchase by rolling the downhill boot so that all ten crampon down-points bite into the snow, rather than just using the 'edge' of the crampon. Figure XX illustrates this secure and energy-saving technique. If you need to kick toe-steps on a traverse, be even more diligent to kick them down and into the snow, giving you a secure purchase.
Step-Cutting
In strange or desperate conditions you may be forced to cut steps into snow with an axe. Figure XX illustrates a good technique. This requires practice to be efficient. Modern crampons make step-cutting rare, though, as the front-point group can often be used on terrain where climbers of days long ago cut steps. Still, it is a good technique to remember and practice. Who knows; some day you may end up losing your crampons on a climb (a chilling thought). Similarly, it may some day be necessary to cut hand-holds. Use the adze of your axe to chop a deep slot in the snow such that you can get a hand wrapped around the lower edge and inside. That's about it; you don't need to get too elaborate with step or hand-hold cutting. These are slow and tiring techniques, but you should be prepared to use them. See Figure XX and practice.
Corniced Ridges and Cornices
These may have cornices one side of the ridge or both, depending on the prevailing winds in the area. Take the precautions noted above for cornices. In really awful circumstances you may need to throw yourself off one side of the ridge if you see that your partner has fall off of the opposite side, as shown in Figure XX. Believe it or not. Do this only if simul-climbing or with the poorest of belay anchors and where the ridge is not sharp enough (ice, or rock beneath the snow) to cut the rope when two bodies are hanging on it. Before venturing onto such terrain as may demand this action, arrange some plan for getting back up onto the ridge; if one climber is starts up before the other is climbing, the weight may pull the climbing partner up and over the ridge - not what you had in mind.
On really bad corniced ridges consider NOT following in the leader's footsteps, as this may provide just enough of a weakness in the snow to release a cornice - you just don't want to be around when that happens.
At some point you may end up under a cornice and need to pass over it to reach the summit, or ridge, or whatever. The best way to do this is to try to go around it, though this is all too often impossible. In such a case you will have to tunnel through the cornice. This is difficult and exhausting and will thunder heaps of snow onto the belayer, but it can't be helped. Put up your hood and wear your goggles and gloves. Use your axe shafts thrust wholly into the snow for holds. Try to estimate the angle you need to tunnel at so that you break through on the other side as soon as possible. Your belayer will thank you as they've spent the last hour gazing up at a huge snow gargoyle apparently ready to drop off at any moment. Figure XX illustrates some points regarding cornice tunnelling.
Post-Holing
Some day you'll encounter deep snow such that you will have to post-hole. At each step you sink deep into the snow, creating 'post-holes'. This can be the most exhausting part of a climb; you're straining to lift your legs out of the hole every time and then trying to re-set them the surface, only to have them sink in again. It's rather like trying to hike up a steep hill of sand, only much, much worse. More than once, my partner and I have been reduced to crawling - to distribute our weight across the sugar-like snow - when the post-holing became too exhausting, and when our knees and hands start sinking in we usually to resort to slithering in utter despair (skis would help, but are only good for the approach, and there's no way I'm going to lug a pair of snowshoes up a climb). The idea is to distribute your weight over a large area. The second climber may often save a lot of energy by literally following in the footsteps of the leader. Because this is easier than plunging the steps, switch leads as the terrain allows to share the work. You'll soon find yourself seething with resentment if your partner shirks the responsibility and doesn't volunteer to 'break ground'. If you're the lazy one, get to it and pull your share of the load.
Most post-holing takes place on relatively level terrain where snow can build up considerable depths. If your find yourself in deep and loose post holing terrain on steeper ground, you've probably wandered into avalanche city. Get out by the fastest route possible. On flat post-holing terrain, such as approach routes, you may consider skis or snow-shoes, which will be a revelation. This often requires setting up a camp at the bottom of the climb and coming back for your skis later, so plan accordingly.
Snow Flutings
A snow fluting is a long vertical ridge of snow, as illustrated in Figure XX. Climbing these can be very difficult as they are often capped with joints which merge into other flutings (see Figure XX). You'll have to deal with them as you may, sometimes burrowing up through smaller joints and into another fluting trough, or traversing across the flutings to get to other troughs. Consider looking for protection beneath the surface snow.
Snow Balling
Snow often 'balls up' under your crampons and you end up lugging a five-pound mass of ice on each boot. This can be extremely dangerous if you let it build up, as you may suddenly need a good foothold which will be impossible to get with a ball of compacted snow on your boot soles. You can use an ice axe to knock the side of your boot or crampon occasionally when this is happening. Resist the urge to kick the stuff off; it's easy to snag a front-point in a gaiter or a boot-lace and take a tumble. This is a particular danger when descending 'safe', easy snow slopes where you may be galloping along. You can coat your crampons with a silicon dip to prevent snow build-up, or even with duct tape. Still, no method is completely preventative.
The main things to remember in alpine snow climbing are that you should stay clear of avalanche terrain, use the greatest number of crampon points for purchase and stay off the front third of your boots as much as possible.
Descending Alpine Snow
As with ice and rock, you can descend via rappels, with the security of a fixed line or by down-climbing, perhaps with tension from the belayer. And again, down-climbing is the safest for most terrain, banishing the myriad dangers of rappelling. Still, when you must rappel, use the appropriate safety measures mentioned in the sections on Alpine Rock/Ice Rappelling. For fixed rope descent see the section on Descending Fixed Ropes.
Down-climbing snow is usually straight-forward and intuitive, and I am assuming that you have some training here already. The main things to keep in mind are - again - that you want the maximum number of crampon points to bite at a time, and that you want to preserve strength by staying off of the front portion of your boots. If you can, descend facing outwards, knees bent and with your axe thrust in the snow, securing your upper body as you move your legs. On steeper snow, turn inwards and dagger with your picks or use your axe shafts as necessary, as shown in Figure XX. Belay on steeper snow if possible, and on a fixed line stay tied in and use a safety ascender knot or device. Kick big holds for your partner and place protection occasionally. As your partner descends they'll be at increased risk of a big fall if they slip, unless you place reasonable protection as you descend and then belay them as they come down.

CHAPTER 4
THE ALPINE ROPE

When you choose a rope for alpine climbing, there are several main points to consider. These are length and diameter, performance statistics, water-absorption characteristics, weight and, last but not least, whether you will climb on a single or double rope. In this chapter the main concern is whether to use a single rope or double-rope techniques, and what length of rope to use. Because you should have some climbing experience before starting alpine climbing, I leave you to decide on such factors as performance statistics.
The 50m Rope
Some climbers use a single 50m rope (usually of 10.5mm-11mm diameter) for alpine climbing, but I think they're missing out. Certainly, the rope is strong enough, but it is a single rope. One chop and it's finished, and in alpine climbing, damaged ropes are a regular occurrence. Perhaps the worst aspect is that a single 50m rope can only give you 25m rappels, thus doubling the number of anchors you have to arrange, carry and - worst of all - trust. Of course, you can make 50m rappels if you tie your lead rope to another rope (often a smaller-diameter rope carried in someone's pack on the way up), but then there's a knot in the rope which can cause major problems if (when, more likely) it gets snagged. Also, carrying a spare rope in a pack for the rappels is a waste; if you're carrying two ropes you may as well use both of them for belaying.
That is precisely what some climbers do - they use two 50m 'half' ropes (c.8-9mm diameter) for double-rope climbing, then make 50m rappels with the ropes tied together. Still, chances are, that knot is going to be big trouble some day. I suggest you eliminate the problem altogether and climb on a 100m rope. This is discussed in the following section.
The 100m Rope
There are at least three excellent reasons to use an 'alpine' rope rather than a standard rock-climbing rope. First, with a 100m rope you can make very long leads when the terrain is relatively easy and falls will not be generating normal rock-climbing stresses. On approach slopes which need to be belayed, long sections of easy climbing in the midst of a route, and descents, the 100m rope allows you to keep moving for as long as possible; you spend less time switching belays. Second, a 100m rope may be doubled for use on more dangerous terrain, where falls are a greater risk. In these cases, the increased safety of a doubled rope makes the whole alpine game more reasonable; the consequences of a chopped or damaged rope are reduced considerably. Thirdly, on descents, a 100m rope can be used to make 50m full-length rappels without a knot in the middle of the rope which can snag when you're pulling the ropes. The absence of a knot makes everything smoother and significantly reduces the chances for disaster.
Clearly, the 100m rope is an excellent choice for alpine climbing. The cons ? Well, a 100m rope is large, heavy and bulky at first, but you can soon get used to this and you end up thinking, 'this is the weight of a rope' rather than 'gee, this is a lot heavier than my 50x11 rock rope !'. So the weight and bulk are no big deal once you're used to them. It's true that untangling a 100m rope can be double the nightmare of untangling a 50m rope, but you really shouldn't be getting a lot of tangles anyway; efficient rope management is a basic key to swift movement in the mountains, and you must master it. So the tangle argument is out. Long ropes cost more than a single rope, but - again - this argument is pretty weak. Would you skimp on a pacemaker? I'd rather pay extra and be able to make full-length rappels without a knot, and I can split the cost with my partner, so it's not all that bad anyway. You have to learn double-rope technique to use 100m rope in more dangerous sections, but what's the big deal there? It is just another skill to add to your alpine resume !
If you get into the double rope method and -for whatever reason- hate it, you can always cut your single 100 meter rope in two and use these as you see fit (as haul lines, perhaps).
The Twin Rope Method
One method may be to your liking if you prefer the safety of two ropes but don't want to learn the double-rope technique. This is the twin rope method, where two ropes (or one 100-meter rope) of 8-9mm diameter are used precisely as a single rope. The twin ropes are clipped through all protection; everything is the same except for the added safety and complexities of belaying two ropes.
Whatever rope system you decide on, be sure to get ropes which are dry; these have been treated so that they do not absorb as much water as a non-dry rope. A sodden rope is heavier and weaker than a dry rope. A dry-treated rope will absorb water, just not as much as a non-dry-treated rope.
Double-Rope Techniques
Whether you use a single 100m rope and double it on more difficult pitches, or a pair of 50m ropes, you are going to have to learn to use double-rope methods. A few double-rope basics are outlined below, but you must learn more than can be discussed here. Without some practice and efficient organization double-rope method can be dangerously confusing. Still, it's not as hard to learn as you might think. If you decide to use this system, do a lot of practice climbs and get used to double-roping before going up on a 'real' climb. Though two ropes are intrinsically more difficult to manage than one, I think the effort in learning is worth the security, and it doesn't take all that long to learn anyway.
The leader must tie into the doubled rope with a doubled figure-eight as shown in Figure XX. This takes advantage of the full strength of both ropes. The second also ties into both ropes, as shown in Figure XX.
The belay ends of the doubled ropes anchored to separate anchors whenever they can be arranged. Using separate anchors is crucial if you plan to take advantage of the doubled rope technique. Figure XX illustrates the principle. This may require a bit more hardware and will not always be possible, but I maintain that it is safest and still a worthy goal in alpine terrain; just learn to place multiple anchors quickly and hope you can get them. When you can't, it's just too bad.
The best double-rope belay device is the Stitch plate, which is made for keeping the double ropes separated to reduce tangling. Though hopefully each rope will be anchored to different anchors, both ropes go through the same belay device. If you're using a Munter hitch (as you may when the rope gets icy), you will have to use two Munters, preferably each on a different carabiener; again, this will preserve the value of the two separate ropes. This is a bother but still worth the effort in the long run. See Figure XX.
The leader heads off. As long as the protection is arranged in a relatively straight line, the leader clips the ropes alternately through each piece, as shown in Figure XX. Alternate clipping reduces the chances of the rope twisting together, which would create real problems. When a piece of protection must be placed to the side of your line of ascent, you can clip one rope or the other through this piece to reduce drag, as shown in Figure XX. The main thing to remember is not to cross the ropes, as shown in Figure XX; this would be defeating the drag-reducing advantage of the double-rope technique and could generate bad directional loads on protection.
One advantage of the double-rope technique is that it can be used to protect the second from long, nasty pendulums if they fall while seconding or are jumaring. The leader clips one rope through the traverse anchor, traverses across, then climbs upward again, now clipping the ropes alternately again as usual. See Figure XX. When the second comes across, the rope not clipped through the traverse anchor can be used to 'top-rope' the second as they swing across on the other rope, making the whole operation far less hair-raising than with a single rope.
Once at the belay, the leader must remember to try to anchor the two ropes to different anchor systems, again to provide the maximum safety of the two-rope system.
To prevent major headaches (or worse) be vigilant about keeping the rope untangled. After managing double ropes for a while, single rope management will be much easier and faster.
Rope Care
The rope is, of course, your lifeline. Treat your rope with reverence. Be very careful with crampons and ice tools; you don't want to be several thousand feet up and accidentally slice the rope with a clumsy step or a wayward swing of your axe. Although these are real concerns, most of the time when you've stepped on a rope with crampons, they're not sharp enough to impale the rope - it generally 'rolls' away from the spike. If you have a tendency, as I do, to over-sharpen your crampons so that they are like knives, control yourself. It's not hard, and can save you much grief. If you do find yourself stepping on a rope with a crampon, look very carefully as you raise your foot. If the rope comes up with the boot, skewered on a spike, you may commence weeping. Even if the rope wasn't skewered, inspect it anyway, as you may have damaged it by mashing it between a rock, or some ice, and the frame of your crampon.
Inspect your rope before you go climbing. Run it through your fingers two or three times, feeling for soft spots, kinks, flat spots, holes in the sheath or lumps under it. Any of these are potential problems which you should investigate. You can clean your rope in a washing-machine with powdered detergent, but DO NOT dry it in the drier. Set it in a shaded area and let it air-dry. Remember that UV rays slowly but surely degenerate the strength of nylon fibers; don't store the rope in sunlight. Don't let bleach, oil or corrosive chemicals near the rope. When you go climbing, take care where you put the rope in relation to the solvents, oils and other corrosives in your car. Finally, replace the rope after it's taken a real winger, or has been subject to many alpine climbs. And, of course, don't use the same rope you use for alpine climbs for practice climbing at the crags; no matter how much you down-climb, you're liable to eventually put some big falls on your 'cragging' rope (especially if you're pushing your limits). Rope bags have become popular for protecting ropes from dirt or sunlight. On alpine climbs, though, carrying a rope bag is excessive - most of the time you won't be dragging the rope around in dirt, as at a local crag, and the last thing you need on an alpine climb is another piece of gear to try not to drop.

PART II
PLANNING THE CLIMB
Objective Dangers, Timing and Specialized Alpine Clothing and Gear

INTRODUCTION

Once you're familiar with the adaptations of standard climbing hardware and techniques required for technical alpine climbs, and with a decent background of rock-climbing and snow and ice technique under your belt, you'll be ready to go further afield and apply the theories to the real world. You must consider what you want from climbing and then decide what route to attempt.
Keep in mind that retreats are only 'failures' if you consider them to be so; and that you shouldn't. What is your number-one thought in going out to climb? To come back alive, I expect, even though this often gets relegated to the subconscious. If you come home alive you have succeeded. If you die, you've definitely failed your first and most important goal. Your second consideration? I suggest that it be enjoy yourself (however that's defined for you; for some it is to suffer), and to make a good attempt at the route, 'good' meaning in a style which does not damage the route and which gives you the challenge you seek. The third and least important: to reach the summit or end of the route, however it is defined by the particular climb. These are my most basic suggestions for staying alive.
With these goals in mind, you set about to decide on a route. There's no shame in starting at a low grade, and every good reason to do so. Don't play hero; alpine climbing is dangerous enough as it is. You don't often have to raise the stakes to make yourself feel good about what you've done. As you become more experienced you may find certain dangers more acceptable and push for more objectively dangerous climbs. On the other hand, you may stay at a particular level and enjoy that, or you may even find that this is all just too much and decide to stay at home, or take up something else. Shakespeare nailed it down in Hamlet: to thine own self be true.
What you take on any particular climb will depend on so many variables - such as personal ethic, season of the year, condition of the climb, and so forth - that making generalizations or gear lists is not really useful. The best general advice that can be given is to down-play technology and increase self-confidence, which is best done by increasing your abilities in snow, ice and rock climbing of all types. Obviously such things don't come quickly or easily - competence comes after long commitment. Relax and learn.

CHAPTER 5
SPECIALIZED ALPINE CLOTHING AND GEAR

Alpinists spend time in places not really conducive to human life. Alpine routes are normally cold, devoid of life, wind-scoured and icy. The most fundamental equipment the alpinist owns are proper clothes; consider standing beneath a route with a set of the latest tools and an unconquerable will -- stark naked. You won't get far. You've got to be clothed effectively. A lot of alpine clothing is specialized and there are a constellation of esoteric points to consider depending on your size, physiology, the type of climb you want to do; ad infinitum. The best way to make sense of it all is to be outfitted in as general-purpose and durable a get-up as possible. The following sections discuss clothing best suited to the general alpinist, interested in technical alpine climbing of all types. The alpinist's garb may generally be characterized as a layer system able to insulate the climber and cope with copious sweat from inside and wind and water from the outside, all in a system allowing total freedom of movement and durability. A tall order.
Layering for Alpinists
The layering principle is at the core of extreme-temperature and foul-weather dressing. Rather than putting on a massive down-filled parka which will become unbearably hot when you start moving, you wear a number of layers which can be added to or stripped from as conditions and activity dictate. The simplest effective system consists of three basic layers; the wicking layer, the insulation layer and the shell. These are discussed below.
The Alpine 'Wicking' Layer
The 'wicking layer' serves an absolutely essential function; the transport of your sweat away from your skin. You will sweat XXXX liters per hour on a normal day and XXXX liters per hour during heavy work, such as climbing. Let's say you do a 20-hour climb, car-to-car. You'll have sweated out XXXX liters by the end of the day ! If that sweat is not transported away from your skin you'll definitely be feeling clammy, if not chilled or frozen.
In this case the 'good old days' were the 'bad old days'; climbers ended their climbs soaked as if they had been standing fully clothed in a shower all day. Add a sub-zero temperature and a little wind and you have a bone-chilling situation. On longer climbs people had to carry more dry clothing and spend precious time drying the wet clothing or, in the worst cases, spending a miserable icy night waiting to get going again in the morning and generate some body heat. Not only is it a complete drag to be soaked and cold, this condition may lead to cooling of the body core temperature and, ultimately, hypothermia. This may be considered a drag of another magnitude altogether.
Luckily for modern climbers there are now a number of fabrics produced which will 'wick' some of the sweat away from your skin and to the outer surface of the fabric where it evaporates. Fig. XX illustrates the principle.
Long-Johns
By long-johns I mean either a one-piece jumpsuit or standard two-piece suits. Long-johns are usually composed of some type of polyester. Patagonia's Capilene is very popular. It is also expensive. REI makes it's own brand of Expedition Weight Underwear (as do other companies; these are in contrast to Mid-Weight or Light-weight underwear), which I have tried and found to be good (particularly because it is inexpensive) but noticeably less efficient at wicking than Capilene. On the other hand, my partner Chiu prefers the REI Merkalon to the Capilene, so individual physiology is likely a factor here as well; he doesn't sweat as much as I do. Chiu also likes Thermax, by DuPont, and in Europe Helly-Hansen is popular. For the beginner, I would suggest buying an inexpensive first set and then moving on to more efficient wickers if you decide to keep at it.
One-piece suits are more comfortable than two-piece suits, but they are more expensive and if badly damaged are more costly to replace. The comfort comes from eliminating the waist-band. I find this an unnecessary and expensive luxury. I think an important advantage of the two-piece suit is that you can take off the top or bottom as conditions dictate. If one or the other get unexpectedly soaked, for example, this can be really important.
In long-john tops, you need to choose between a button or zip neck. No big deal; I suggest a zip as it keeps out drafts. On tops also look for good cuffs which will keep the wrists warm, and ignore 'features' such as pockets, which are rather useless in the first layer.
Wicking Socks and Gloves
Buried deep inside your double boots your feet can sweat more than you may expect, chilling your feet. Additionally, on extended climbs your feet can be sodden for a long time, producing other complications such as trench-foot. To prevent this, I strongly suggest wearing a wicking sock, a thin polyester liner which will keep your feet relatively dry. Your insulating socks will get wet, but they can be dried at night, and anyway, they should keep you relatively warm even if wet (see below). Any good outdoor store can provide you with wicking socks.
The same goes for your hands. Inside your gloves you can sweat quite a bit, again chilling by conductive heat loss. Wicking gloves are made of the same thin polyester as socks. Some insulating gloves, however, such as the Capilene gloves by Patagonia, will wick as well as thin liner gloves. In many cases you can just wear these under your shell gloves to escape the cold. You may end up wearing wicking gloves if you decide to buy mittens rather than gloves, so that you can take the mitts off to work with your fingers. If you do, be sure to equip your mitts with leashes so that you don't drop them.
Many specialized climbing gloves produced today come with a single wicking/insulating liner. These are discussed in the section on Shell Gloves and Mittens.
For the coldest climbs you may want to wear neoprene socks. The thickness should be such that they fit well inside your boots, and they must not be so tight as to impair blood circulation, which is your primary defense against cold.
The Alpine Insulation Layer
The insulation layer keeps you warm by trapping air between you and the garment. This air is warmed by your body and kept warm and inactive, or 'dead', by the garment. Wool has been popular for many years and many will stick by it until their dying day. This is fine, as wool is an excellent insulator and does a good job of keeping one warm if it gets wet. It is a fact that wool is adequate for many purposes; many great, cold climbs have been done in wool.
It is also a fact that modern synthetic 'pile' fabrics are as efficient or more efficient than wool in insulation when wet or dry, and are lighter. Those who wear wool jerseys and smear themselves with goose-grease will probably not change to pile, and those who start with pile will likely not 'cross over' to wool and goose-grease. I suggest pile because it is lighter, often faster to dry, and some blends have better insulating properties than wool.
If you are concerned with weight (and if you stick with alpinism for a while you probably will be), you'll probably end up with synthetic pile. There are too many pile blends to review here, but do beware of off-brand piles which may go 'flat' after a season. It's expensive to stick to the big names - Marmot, The North Face, Patagonia, Lowe, et., but worth it in the long run. The differences in quality, in my opinion, are negligible. Most of the piles produced for these companies come from the same mills, but each manufacturer has different weights and colors and designs and you may find yourself in a real predicament as to which pile jacket to buy first. My standard advice applies here as well; buy a simple jacket and work onward from there, depending on your individual needs and tastes. A good jacket will have a high neck-guard (a hood is superfulous), a heavy-duty zipper and perhaps a pair of pockets to keep your hands warm.
Pile pants or bibs (or salopettes), illustrated in Figure XX, are good for extremely cold temperatures, but in most cases the wicking layer long-john bottoms will serve as a good insulator. When you get around to climbing in the colder ranges, you will likely wear bibs under your shell. In these cases, you may have to buy another shell which is big enough to allow you free movement. If you buy a medium-sized pair of bibs and wear wicking long-johns and pile bibs under them it's likely that you'll be too constricted to move as you'd like. On the other hand, if you buy a large jacket and bibs and spend most of your time climbing in moderate climes, you'll be frustrated by acres of nylon getting in the way. To avoid these problems, try on a number of shell/insulating layer combinations before you buy. If you don't, you'll curse yourself for all eternity when your $300 shell bibs split at the crotch. Think before you buy.
One very basic consideration; for alpine conditions, cotton is out. Cotton has virtually no insulation properties, and those it has are wiped out when it gets wet. You may have been able to get away with flannels in Scouts, but those days are gone; you need to wear clothes which will insulate when wet. If they don't get wet from the outside, your sweat will moisten (or soak) them from the inside. There is no defense; your clothes will get wet and you must be properly attired to avoid hypothermia.
Shell Gloves and Mittens
Your hands will get very cold. This is a fact regardless of whatever gloves you wear. There are very good gloves, and very bad gloves, and of course gloves which are fairly good, but none of them will keep your hands warm at all times. Luckily, with good or fair gloves you'll be able to keep warm most of the time. When you're placing protection, removing protection, belaying, or putting on or taking off your crampons, your hands get cold. I've found that only when I'm really moving, really pumping blood, do my hands stay warm. Personal physiology is also a factor here; some people just get cold hands faster than others. You'll soon find out if you're blessed with 'naturally' warm hands.
Basically, there are gloves and mittens. Mittens keep your fingers together, containing body heat in one compartment. Gloves separate your fingers and are most often not as warm as mittens. Mittens, though, can be tough to work with - straps, buckles, knot-tying and working with protection are the real problems here. One solution is the trigger-finger design. This is a combination of glove and mitten in which the index finger has it's own compartment, allowing a precision grip when you need it. Lowe produces such a glove called the Dr. Strangeglove. Whatever type of handgear you buy, make sure it has a substantial cuff which keeps the wrist warm; a lot of blood pumps through your wrist, close to the skin and cold air, and you need to keep this covered.
Dachstein mitts are made of tightly-knit wool and are practically windproof. They are also very warm and can shed a lot of water before they get sodden. They can be very useful for extra-cold climbs where you won't be getting too wet (everything will be frozen due to the low temperature).
Beware ski gloves with a Gore-Tex or other waterproof/breathable membrane; such membranes usually blow out under the punishment of climbing. I suggest specialized climbing gloves even though ski gloves are often a relatively cheap alternative.
Some notes on alpine climbing gloves. The expensive models produced by the big suppliers are generally well made, but many need to be seam-sealed before you climb. Also, the liners for some of these gloves are very warm and very thick; try them on when selecting ice axes to be sure it's not difficult to grip the shaft because of the thick gloves. Finally, try to get a pair of shell gloves with a tough palm/thumb/index finger covering. These areas wear out rather quickly under the rigors of belaying, rappelling and thrashing around on rock.
Headgear
Probably the best alpine headgear is the balaclava, a hood-like garment illustrated in Figure XX. In most conditions you can wear it as shown in Figure XX(a), but when it gets warm, or hot, you can use it as a hat or headband, as in Figure XX(b). This is a versatile piece which can also be shrugged down around the neck and used as a scarf. The balaclava is snug-fitting and fits under the helmet, unlike a taller or thicker pile hat, which is too hot 99% of the time anyway. Woolen balaclavas are generally going to be too warm once you're moving, and the itching will probably drive you more insane than you already are (this may or may not be a concern of yours). A medium-weight balaclava which wicks sweat is excellent. Such a model - of Capilene - is made by Patagonia, and it's one of their items that I'm actually willing to break down and pay for. If you wear this when you sleep you'll be a damn sight warmer than without it (same applies for any headgear except maybe a baseball cap, which is pretty weird on an alpine route anyway).
Pile headgear with a waterproof/breathable membrane are a bit of a luxury, but do stop wind dead in it's tracks. However, so will the hood of your jacket, and you don't need to buy that extra, or try to keep from losing it.
The Alpine Shell : Jacket and Bibs
The shell keeps the wind and wet out, for which you'll be rather thankful. A good shell/insulation/wicking system can really turn the most horrendous conditions into something manageable, and sometimes even enjoyable. The most common and versatile combination is that of jacket and bibs. Bibs are basically pants with suspenders and a flap of material reaching to the chest, and perhaps partly up the back. These are illustrated in Fig. XX, with a number of important points noted.
Though some one-piece suits are being produced today, the standard jacket-and-bib set-up is probably better for the aspiring beginner. The one-piece suit is generally lighter than a two-piece suit, and can be less costly than buying a separate jacket and bibs. The main drawback - and it is a crucial one - is that with a one-piece suit you cannot separate the jacket and bibs. For extended struggles this may be excellent, but for 90% of the climbs you do a two-piece suit is probably best. Sometimes you'll want to take off your jacket to cool off, sometimes your bibs. You may need to take off one component or the other to give to a disabled partner, or you may need to repair one while wearing the other. Really, for the beginner, I suggest a two-piece suit. Economics, though, may sway you towards the one-piece suits, which are becoming more popular and less expensive; if so, the notes regarding fit (below) should still apply.
For shell components you need a waterproof/breathable system, such that the elements stay out and your sweat escapes. The most common is Gore-Tex. A number of other membranes are available, with variable performance and cost. Most systems today have seam-taped stitching; the 'tape' keeps moisture from entering through stitching holes. Almost all the waterproof-breathable clothes these days have taped seams, but watch out for those without this treatment. If you buy non-taped garments, you can attempt to stop the gaps with plastic seam-sealer goo, which you can buy at an outdoor supplier.
The range of shell jackets, pants and bibs on the market today is mind-numbing in its variety and endless detail. It is my opinion that the market has gone totally berserk. Prices have gone through the roof - the big companies charge close to $400 for 'alpine climbing jackets' these days, which is an outrage. Scores of absolutely trivial 'features' have grown like tumors on otherwise very good designs. Look at a range of these garments. You'll find elaborate under-arm vents, waist-cinches, snow skirts, removable hoods, retractable hoods, zipper-and-velcro closures, angled pockets with snow-flaps, liners and a gallery of other nuisances. BUY THE SIMPLEST, MOST DURABLE SHELL YOU CAN FIND. I have climbed for more than ten years in a spartan Gore-Tex Wilderness Designs anorak (a pullover-type jacket). It has no snow skirt to keep out deep powder, no underarm vents, the hood is not removable and does not roll back to get 'out of my way', it has a nylon liner and has one large pocket on the belly and is lighter than any durable climbing jacket on the market today. I'm not mentioning this as someone blindly enamored with some archaic design; I'm saying it to tell you that, in my experience, I've not needed all the modern 'features'. This jacket, to me, is the 'ultimate', not one of the recent over-designed beasts. Even though my jacket is getting a bit threadbare, I'm having trouble finding a replacement at a reasonable cost. The gadgets and hype are simply too much.
Having said this, consider the following points when you're looking for a SIMPLE shell jacket and bibs. Are they cut so that, when wearing a pile jacket and long-john bottoms, you can still move easily? Try doing some pull-ups at the store (perhaps not in the changing booth). Also try some push-ups (ditto !); does the shell bind, or tighten on your elbows? How does the jacket feel if you reach straight up as high as possible? When you do this, do the bibs ride up and tighten on your crotch, restricting you in any way? Can you tuck the jacket in under a harness so that the fabric won't ride up and cover your central harness carabieners and your tie-in? This can be infuriating if you're always trying to tuck the jacket back in. Does the hood fit over a helmet and still allow you to rotate your head ? Would the hood be better under a helmet? Can the hood be cinched down so that your whole face is covered except a slit for the eyes? This can be really useful in a nasty storm. Can you put on boots and/or skis without removing the bibs (this is accomplished with full-length side zips)? Are the zippers big and easy to clear of snow or ice, or are they dinky little jobs which will clog easily? Will snow or rain get in through the zippers, or are they covered with storm-flaps? One of the best things about the anorak design is that, lacking a front zipper and 'storm-flaps', it saves weight and is less likely to let in the elements - snow, sleet, rain -- whatever. Are the bibs designed so that you can answer the call of nature without removing your harness? You probably won't need a lot of pockets, so skip the models with inner pockets, chest pockets and the like. These are just a bother.
In my experience, Marmot makes an excellent pair of bibs, but their 'top-of-the-line' Alpinist jackets are over-designed, too expensive and too heavy. The same goes for The North Face. Consider these companies' simpler, lighter models. Whatever you do, DON'T BELIEVE THE HYPE. Over-design is the scourge of modern climbing clothing and equipment. Balance the benefits of modern technology with realistic requirements. Do you really need to pay extra so that you can roll the hood of your jacket into it's own little pouch (which you'll have to fumble with frozen fingers)? I think not. The sad fact is that our choices are limited by the (over) designers and marketing bean-counters. In the 1972 Chouinard Equipment catalog there is a quote from Albert Einstein which suits the current situation: 'A perfection of means and confusion of aims seems to be our main problem.'
Miscellaneous Gear
A number of items the alpinist uses are common to the rock-climber and mountaineer but their needs are not always the same. I suggest picking through the market variety in search of simple and durable items you can work with frozen gloved fingers or mittens.
Gaiters
Gaiters are basically gauntlets for your boots - they keep rocks, snow and ice out from between your foot and boot; not a comfortable place to transport these materials. Many types of gaiters are made these days, and most are adequate. The main choices you'll have to make will be between the different lengths and thickness' of gaiters available. Some are short, being just a tube fitting around the ankle. Good for a little scramble, but most alpine routes need a bit more. Others are longer, covering the laces of boot and reaching up to your knee. These uninsulated models are what I suggest. Still other types cover the whole boot, sometimes with a rubber band around the lower portion to help in rock-climbing situations. These 'super-gaiters' cover the boot and are sometimes insulated; probably overkill for most alpine climbs you do close to home. They do, however, have their place in extreme situations, such as in Alaska or the Himalaya, or the Canadian Rockies in winter. When buying, keep in mind that a velcro closure is a heck of a lot easier to operate with frozen fingers than a zipper. Zippers can also get clogged with ice or snow, generating much misery.
Sooner or later your gaiters will end up in pretty rough shape - they take a lot of wear and you can't expect them to hold up to crampons, rock, ice and hard windcrust snow indefinitely. You can make major repairs with that most wonderful of repair resources, duct tape. The strap which goes under your boot can be replaced with heavy nylon weave, or even wire, after it eventually disintegrates, as shown in Figure XX.
The Harness and the Gear Sling
Guess what ? The variety of harnesses on the market today is enormous, and the details of design are mind-boggling. It is worth putting a lot of time and considerable research in before investing in a decent harness. I climbed for many years in a simple diaper-seat harness made from a long loop of 1" tubular webbing. This worked but was not exactly comfortable in longer falls or for hanging belays, and I began to fear major anatomical damage from this torture device. Eventually I bought a giant Chouinard harness and then, for alpine work, a very lightweight but durable Chouinard / Black Diamond Alpinist harness. Not only is this harness light, simple in design and simple to use, it can be put on or removed while you're wearing boots, crampons or skis, which is very handy in cold places. Additionally, this harness is relatively inexpensive, coming in at around $40, which is considerably cheaper than most harnesses.
The UIAA (an international climbing standards organization - see the Glossary), suggests the use of a chest harness. Not many American climbers have taken up the suggestion, though. This is because many believe that the chest harness may injure one's back in a bad fall. However, the chest harness may actually PREVENT you from breaking your back, by preventing you from folding in half backwards in a fall. Figure XX illustrates these occurrences. The choice is yours.
Since you usually don't carry as many pieces of protection on alpine climbs as on rock climbs, you can usually do without a specialized gear sling. If you do need one, in most cases you can skip the fancy pile-lined jobs and just use a regular runner, which can later be used as a sling for protection if needed.
Often you won't even need the sling and all your gear can be racked on the gear loops on your harness. No gear loops on the harness you bought ? Fear not. Don't bother with buying the 'racking kits' ! A bit of plastic tubing threaded with a strand of old kernmantle or thin perlon will do. If your harness doesn't even have the little tabs for the attachment, you can either sew them on or just sew on gear loops made from rolled 1/2" tubular webbing or just perlon, as shown in Figure XX. Really, there are plenty of alternatives to buying the gear racking 'kits' and you may as well save your money to put it towards more expensive and important items like boots and axes, which you shouldn't skimp on. If you're going the 'do-it-yourself' route, be sure that your sewing is secure. See the section on Equipment Modification for more tips on harnesses and racking.
Every climber has their own racking arrangement and it's not useful for me to go into the subject at length here. However, be sure your system is SIMPLE, easily organized and quick to access. There is nothing - and I mean NOTHING - worse than extending a desperate struggle because you can't get that damned screw off a heavily-loaded sling.
Headlamp
You will eventually need a headlamp, if not for night climbs (sometimes a good idea if the snow / ice is too slushy in the day) then for some forced bivouac or a night-time descent, or even just night-time aid climbing practice sessions. There are a variety of headlamps available, but in my experience Petzl makes the best headlamps . These may be powered by a single 4.5v European flat battery or -with an adapter- by three standard AA batteries. The flat batteries should be available wherever you buy the headlamp.
Remember to always carry a spare bulb taped in the lamp-housing; this will save you a lot of trouble if the first bulb blows out. You can buy a number of bulb types. Extremely bright halogen bulbs are a revelation if you're used to standard bulbs, but they are expensive (c.$6.00 each) and only last about 6 hours or so, depending on the battery. You might want to pick a few of these up before a really hairy night ascent, but for most purposes they're just too expensive and require changing too often. Changing bulbs in the field is a drag because you'll have to take off your gloves and work in the cold.
Goggles
Goggles can save you from snow-blindness, and this in turn can save your entire trip. Goggles are also useful if snow is falling in blankets and you want to keep it off your eyes or glasses. Of course you'll have to wipe snow off your goggles but that's better than having it freeze to your glasses. Goggles can also protect your eyes from freezing wind, which can glue your eyelids together in a brief moment.
Snow and ice being - generally - white, they are highly reflective. A little sunlight can turn a glacier or snow-slope into a blinding expanse, and you don't feel snow-blindness until after you've got it. Let me assure you, you don't want it. It feels like having your eyeballs filled with hot grains of sand and randomly lanced by white-hot needles. It can make for a very bad day and will cost you a night's sleep, which can make for an even worse next day, assuming you'll be functional at all.
Ski goggles are fine. If you wear glasses, you can even get goggles which will fit over them, or you can use a knife to cut away slots for your spectacle stems. Make sure you get the highest possible UV/IR (ultraviolet/infra-red) protection; colored plastic is cheap, but worse than useless - it fools your pupils into dilation, so they get more UV/IR bombardment than if you were squinting. Not very helpful. If you carry dark goggles, you'll have a hard time seeing if wearing them on a night climb. Three solutions; carry two lenses (clear and tinted) or carry one photosensitive lens (available these days) or carry one lightly-tinted lens. I find the photosensitive lens the best solution - you don't have to change it, which would be waste of time.
One last note - many times goggles are not necessary. If you're anticipating gray weather, or climbing at night, it's not worth taking them along. However, if you're going to be on a glacier and the weather is supposed to be clear and sunny, or if you plan on an extended trip, goggles are essential. Remember that even if you're climbing at night you may be descending a glacier or snowfield in the brilliant morning sun, which is really painful. Plan carefully.
Pulley
A pair of the lightweight pulley rings, shown in Figure XX, are always attached to my harness. In crevasse rescues, impromptu hauling sessions and the like they can speed everything up and save a lot of energy and frustration. For most alpine needs these are fine, but if you're off to do an alpine wall route, take at least one (stronger) machined pulley of the type shown in Figure XX.
Helmet
WEAR A HELMET ! This topic is very simple. Few alpinists climb without a helmet, and those who do so are living on borrowed time. Too often there is flying ice or rock and a single piece could easily destroy your skull. A cavalier attitude won't keep the rocks or ice or ice tools off your head. It WILL happen to you, eventually, so be prepared. In alpine climbs it is possible in some cases to take very long but survivable 'falls' which are actually slides down slick, low-angle slopes. These 'falls' are long in duration and involve tumbling and skidding - a helmet may keep an ice axe pick, crampon, picket, screw or other sharp item from being inserted - not gently, mind you - into your head. You can also get a crampon or pick in the head if you your leader falls on top of you.
When choosing a helmet, get one that is lightweight (you can compare the weights in catalogs), adjustable (so that you can put it on over a thick or thin hat, or none at all), has attachments for a headlamp (you'll be wearing one soon enough) and is UIAA approved. A non-approved helmet might be lighter but is of no use; it will shatter and you will die.
Do not neglect or skimp on this piece of equipment. A brief review of any issue of the American Alpine Club's Accidents In North American Mountaineering will convince you of the necessity for a helmet in alpine climbing. If you're making the natural transition from rock-climbing to alpinism, you'll soon get used to the helmet and it will eventually become a friend rather than a hindrance.
Backpack
Here we go again; the current market of alpine climbing packs is enormous. And the solution, again; GET THE SIMPLEST, MOST DURABLE AND LIGHTEST PACK POSSIBLE. Forget - totally - the snazzy zipper-pulls, plastic crampon patches, double-strapped models with inflatable hip belts and internal aluminum or plastic frames. These are made for expedition-style climbing (though some claim otherwise), where you're going to be wearing the pack with a heavy load for days on end. In most alpine climbs you will go light, so an elaborate hip-belt and suspension system are not needed. A pack of about 2000-2800 cubic inches is probably the best for most 1-3 day alpine climbs, and even these, with careful rigging, can be made to hold many more days' food and supplies (see the section on Equipment Modification). A pack slightly too large is better than one slightly too small; when you eventually reach for longer adventures, at least you won't have to buy a new pack right away.
The features to look for in an alpinist's pack: two ice axe loops (or an ice axe shaft tube), an extendible top pouch (if not available, see the section on Equipment Modification), crampon fasteners (either on top or on the back; if you really need a patch to stop them from wearing at the fabric, rig one with three layers of duct tape rather than pay extra), a reinforced bottom (you'll find it difficult to be delicate with your pack on rough terrain), decent shoulder straps with a chest fastener (so the pack cannot slide off your shoulders), a slim, tube-like design (so you can move your arms and elbows in total freedom) and a helmet cord (fashion from shock-cord if not available). Though you will not be carrying expedition loads with a normal alpine pack, get one with at least a serviceable hip belt; you must be able to ride the load on your hips rather than your shoulders. Some good, small packs have a back stiffened not with an internal frame, but with a pad of foam. This is excellent - it supports light alpine loads, keeps pointy objects from poking you in the back and, if the pack is empty, it may be used as an insulating foot-rest if your sleeping mat is short. Look for a pack with a good snow collar; this is a tube of fabric at the top of the pack which can be cinched down to prevent snow from getting inside the pack. See Figure XX. If the top of the pack is extendible, the snow collar can also be filled with more gear. Finally, a good haul loop is advisable so that the pack can be dragged up more strenuous sections. The haul loop must be bombproof if you want to avoid the unthinkable - a precious colored dot twirling downwards into the mist...
A lightweight pack is essential. It's no good trimming ounces here and there only to load your spartan rack into a five-pound mountaineer's pack. For most climbing I suggest a pack weighing two pounds or less. Three is, in my opinion, the result of too much gadgetry, however good the design. There are a number of ways to improve your pack cheaply; see the section on Equipment Modification.
Your best bet will be a small, simple pack with an extendible top, ice axe loops, a crampon bungee-cord and a decent hip-belt -- and little else.
Altimeter / Barometer
An altimeter / barometer can be used to determine your elevation and make some predictions about the weather, and is often considered one of the 'ten essentials' (see comments in the following section). I believe, however, that in many cases it is not necessary. If you're climbing in a good-weather window you can usually determine your position by thinking about where you are on the route. A good familiarity with the terrain (via photos and direct observation) is needed here. Of course, in a whiteout descent, where you have no landmarks for orientation, the altimeter can help you to avoid such obstacles as cliffs.
The barometer can help with weather prediction, but this can often be done (rather coarsely) by looking at the clouds (see Appendix A : Mountain Weather). Overall, I'd say that a barometer/altimeter is useful on longer expeditions where you're more isolated and where weather prediction and position determination are likely to be very important. Otherwise, you can skip this item. The digital models are, in my opinion, gimmicks.
Map and Compass
Learn how to use them efficiently. Though many times it will be possible to climb without them, they can make long, complex approaches and descents more predictable. Personally, I carry them very infrequently when close to home, in areas I am very familiar with. The less familiar I am with the terrain, however, the more often I carry the map and compass. Still, being an advocate of complete self-sufficiency, I sometimes will leave map and compass behind and trust my skill at decision-making. Such adventures are always the most dangerous; they are also the most rewarding.
Safety and The 'Ten Essentials' Fallacy
Some outdoor-types insist that there is some magical number of items (often ten) that you should never climb without. I ignore such lists, knowing precisely what I need to make an ascent. I suggest you consider what you deem is the safety margin you want to pursue. For example, for some a first aid kit is a two-pound bag with bandages, splints and a variety of other items. Fair enough. For others, the kit may consist of some pain-killers and a giant bandage which can be cut up into smaller segments. Some climbers never take a compass or map, the route and descent being so direct and obvious that getting lost is effectively impossible - on other climbs, these should definitely not be left behind.
The key is to balance your safety standard with your needs. One thing you must not do, however, is expect that if you are in really dire condition, you can call for rescue, perhaps with a radio or other signal device (flare, mirror, whistle, etc.). The alpinist must go into the mountains with the mentality that there is no prospect of assistance; that any problem you encounter, you will have to deal with. You are responsible: the mountain does not 'do' anything in order to harm you -- you were just in the wrong place at the wrong time and you have only yourself to blame for your situation. Even registering for a climb can give you a psychological crutch which may undermine your safety standard. Rescuers are called upon to risk their necks for yours: by registering for a climb you are not just 'improving' your chances of survival, you are potentially setting the fuse for other people to risk their lives. Think about it.
CHAPTER 6
PLANNING THE CLIMB
Objective Dangers in Alpine Climbing

When it comes to crevasses, rockfall, icefall, avalanche and storm there is little that one can do except plan and climb carefully and hope for the best. All the planning and consideration simply will not preserve you from freak occurrences, and these do occur. Of course, a 'freak occurrence', just like a 'miracle', is not 'bizarre'; it is just statistically very unlikely. The dangers you cannot control for are called objective dangers. These are risks that the alpinist has to take if they want to go into the wild environment; the environment of Adventure, if you will. Be aware of the dangers, learn how to deal with their threat, and be careful.
Avalanche and other snow dangers are dealt with in detail in Snow Dangers and Glaciers and Crevasses : Small Party Concerns.
Your best instruction regarding objective dangers will be the mountains themselves; with a little consideration and a lot of practical experience, you'll find that you're able to pick out areas you wouldn't be caught dead in (no pun intended), and areas which seem rather safe, all according to the time and conditions.
Many of the objective dangers are related to gravity. Falling ice, snow, rock and other debris are common in the mountains, and avoiding it is, naturally, desirable.
Rockfall and Icefall
Aside from storm, these are the worst of the objective dangers. Many times you will have to retreat from a climb due to falling debris, and sometimes you won't even make the approach hike, knowing that it's far too warm to climb, that the face is alive with lethal projectiles.
Predicting icefall and rockfall are often difficult. While it appears that direct sunlight will generate rockfall and other chaos, the albedo (a measure of light/radiation reflectivity) of snow and ice is so high that it is rarely effected by direct sun alone. What really triggers melting is an increase in overall air temperature, and often this is closely correlated with a blast of sunlight. Often, though - not always. In clear and very cold conditions a face may be exposed to glaring sun all day and still remain intact. But don't get too excited. Consider the overall temperature fluctuations of your particular mountain range, observe the signs of falling debris (rockfall scars, avalanche slides, serac and cornice collapse debris) and plan with care. Remember that rockfall will start when the ice or snow holding rock in place begins to melt.
Figure XX illustrates some of the tell-tale signs of rockfall, avalanche and icefall danger. Keep your eyes open and try to determine when the route was last raked by falling debris.
Timing the Climb
Time is a critical variable in alpine climbing. Consider: you are climbing in the mountains, where weather is often unstable. You must time your attempt so that there is a minimum of icefall and rockfall, and avalanche hazard is low - thus, it is likely that 'you'll be climbing during a period of relatively good climbing weather (e.g. 'clear and cold'). However, it is only a matter of time before this weather will change, and it is likely to be for the worse. The solution is to move quickly. Of course, moving too quickly can lead to error and it's consequences. There is little advice that can be given here; you must learn for yourself how quickly you can climb while still being safe, and just where the line between speed and foolishness lies.
In planning your climb, always examine the route for possible retreat routes, or 'bailouts'. If you get stuck and cannot pass point A, would it be better to descend the whole route, or is there some safer bailout available? While you're climbing, keep these in mind as you pass by them. Sometimes you pass the 'point of no return'. This can be exhilarating, or it may generate a dark, creeping terror, depending on the situation.
There are some general questions you must ask yourself before attempting any climb, and in alpine climbing they are critical. For example, consider the following questions- they may seem trivial, but for the average Jane or Joe trying to get something done over the weekend, they can save you a lot of time if you address them effectively :
" Will you be strong enough to do the approach hike after getting off work, or
out of class, and then driving for several hours ?
" How long will the approach hike take ?
" Will you be strong enough after the approach to do the climb with the speed you
want, or would it be better to bivouac first ?
" What is the 'temporal nature' of the line you wish to take ? Is it relatively
safe all day long (such as a north-facing line in the northern hemisphere), or is it going
to turn into a death-trap of icefall by noon ?
" When would it be best to climb - day, or perhaps night ?
" Is the line relatively straightforward (as in a gully), or does it have
complications such as traverses or overhangs or very difficult 'steps' of ice or rock ?
How long will these obstacles delay you ?
" How long do you think the ascent will take, from rope-up to summit ?
" How long do you think the descent will take, from summit to car ?
Answering these questions will give you a better idea of how long you expect to be climbing and descending, and thus what sort of safety margin to pursue in clothing, equipment and food. Though plans go awry, and the nature of alpine routes is such that predictions are often difficult, an intelligent and realistic plan is a good start. Experience with weather, knowing your strengths and weaknesses, reading about others' experiences, talking to other climbers; all of these will help to develop your skill in planning the climb. After a time you'll begin to be able to look at a route and quickly evaluate the situation; when to start, about when you'll summit, how long the descent will take, what dangers lurk along the way. Many climbers spend lots of time at home gazing at photographs of climbs; particularly with alpine climbs it's a good idea to sit down and familiarize yourself with aspects of the mountain and surrounding terrain which may not be visible or otherwise apparent once you get on your route. For example, you can look for difficulties on the ascent route which may or may not be covered with snow or ice. You can look for dangerous snow slopes and consider the possibility of avalanche. You can examine the details of the descent route (this is crucial) and try to predict the difficulties, or at least get a general idea of the circumstances. Things will be different when you reach the real thing, but at least you'll have some concept of what's going on, and some idea of the timing for your climb.
Of course, such reckoning is not infallible and you will probably some day under- or over-estimate a climb. The consequences of such an experience will probably teach you some important lessons. In my experience, the most valuable lessons are learned after encountering some horrible obstacle or situation. View any retreat as a saving of your hide and consider what you learned from the experience. Remember, as Don Whillans, the British climber, used to say, 'the mountain will always be there - the trick is for you to be there to'.
The Descent
The descent is often a perilous time. Imagine: you have just completed an excellent climb, one you've been drooling over for years, and you are elated, standing on the summit. You are also cold, wet, hungry, thirsty and exhausted. Now you face a descent, perhaps in the dark and by headlamp. You have to fight the urge to move quickly; all you want is to get to your camp and sleep, and then get home as quickly as possible and into a hot bath...but there is a lot of work to do first, and taking your time on the descent - being safe - is going to be a total drag.
This is often the situation of the beginner, but it's relatively easy to overcome. Engrave into your consciousness the fact that the climb isn't over until you've finished the descent. This is possibly the most important thing to remember when planning a climb and once you're on the summit. Even on easy descents, be particularly wary. Don't take shortcuts with safety - rather, get into a 'Safety First' mentality. Go ahead and belay your partner down even easy sections. Though this may lengthen the time you spend on the route, it may save you from the consequences of 'stupid' mistakes, which are so easy to make when you're tired and just want to get home.
A tragic example of this sort of mistake comes from the first ascent of Mt. Huntington, in Alaska. David Roberts and Ed Berndt, having summited, were descending fixed lines to their tent on a ledge several thousand feet beneath the summit. It was night, and the pair were, more than anything, looking forward to getting into their tent for a hot drink and sleep... Roberts arrived at a belay station and anchored himself to the ledge. Berndt came down and joined Roberts on the granite perch. Berndt pulled the rappel ropes from his descender, fed the ropes for the next rappel through his descender, clipped a carabiener to the ropes, and clipped this carabiener into the anchor, an angle piton. Or so he thought. He leaned back and for a moment the carabiener held - then it slipped off the top of the piton. In the darkness he had clipped around the eye of the piton, rather than through it. He toppled backwards and silently fell thousands of feet to the glacier below. Roberts, in shock, somehow managed to descend to the tent, where he waited for two days before the rest of the climbing team arrived.
This terrible accident must be recognized as Berndt's fault. This was not a 'rappel failure'. This was climber error -- Berndt failed to check the security of his anchor, probably the most basic mistake possible in rappelling. In the dark he reached for it, felt and heard the click of the carabiener, assumed it was clipped into the anchor and then applied his weight. Figure XX illustrates what happened. Food for thought.
Remember, though, that it's important to stay calm. Panic, expecting disaster at each move, can paralyze you with unfounded fear. The balance of fear and calm is something you can only learn with experience.
You may find it useful to consider a descent route before you plan an ascent route, particularly if you have no description of the line you want to climb. Start off by asking 'how are we going to get down ?', and plan accordingly.
Stopping
There are three main reasons to keep moving on technical alpine routes. First, there usually just isn't any good reason to stop. Second, the longer you stop, the longer you remain on the climb, and thus the longer you are exposed to whatever objective dangers exist. Third, when moving you are generally going to be warm (if not overheated). Stop, and you'll soon chill from sweat and low temperature (a lot of sweat will be wicked away, hopefully, but climbing wearing a pack is awfully sweaty work, leaving your back slick and cold). I strongly advise against rest stops of any kind in which both leader and belayer are halted. Don't bother to stop to do little things like remove your headlamp once it gets light. Such 'convenience' stops eat up time and keep you in danger longer. Those stops you do make should be made in some shelter from objective danger.
If you must make adjustments to your gear, have a bite to eat or whatever, try to wait until you've reached an easy section so you can do it while the leader keeps moving.
On the Approach Hike
While you may spend some time in the bigger ranges and end up bivvying beneath routes or very close to them, such that an approach hike is not a concern in planning, many times you'll be trying to get a climb in on the weekend, and in these cases the speed with which you dispose of the approach hike can make or break your chances. The following are some suggestions for speeding up the approach.
If any part of the climb will take part in the dark, put your headlamp on your helmet before you do the approach hike (this way you don't have to try to do it at the base of the climb, in the dark, with frozen hands). If you can stand it, wear your helmet on the approach hike. Also wear your gaiters (duct-tape the bottom strap so it doesn't get too cut up on approach hikes). Wear your harness and bibs on the approach. However cold it is at the beginning of the approach hike, don't put on a pile jacket, gloves or a hat; on a strenuous hike, you'll soon have to stop to take them off, and you'll have sweated a lot to boot, dampening your clothes. Coil your rope with the butterfly coil; this does not kink the rope and it is less prone to tangling, when disassembled, than the 'mountaineer's coil'. Arrange your leader's and belayer's equipment before you start off, and pack them last, at the top of the packs. Once at the base of the climb you can just get the racks out, rope up and get moving. Eat a good meal before you set off, and plan for it to last as long as possible. Each climber will have to decide how much they can stomach at one sitting without getting bloated or cramped on a hike. Drink a good draught before heading off as well.
With regard to water; If you expect (with good reason) to be able to keep moving on the climb, and you're planning to be back at the camp, or car, or whatever within 24 hours or so, consider not taking a full load of water. On short excursions I can take a half-liter of water, for example (how much you take depends on your individual physiology - get to know this), in a 1-liter bottle (lightweight 7-Up bottle, not a heavy-duty Nalgene-type), and keep this as an emergency ration. On the approach hike I drink from streams or glacial melt-water (in the warmer months, anyway), and on the climb, when I'm moving constantly, I eat snow. This is widely regarded as taboo, as it can reduce your body temperature or give your overheated system a shock. Use common sense. If you're blistering hot and dying of thirst, for heaven's sake don't leap into a melt-water pool and guzzle gallons of ice water. But on the climb, while you're chugging along nicely, the occasional mouthful of ice or snow can be refreshing. You'll end up somewhat dehydrated by the end of a good adventure, though, so have some water (or juice, and food !) stored in your camp or car for the return. If you're going to bivouac and you're taking a stove, pack just enough water to make it to the bivvy and then melt ice or snow for the night (it will help to put 1/8" of water in the pan and let this warm before putting in ice or snow to melt). Drink as much as is reasonable and satisfying, and a bit more. Then 'make' some water for the next day and keep the bottle warm in your sleeping bag.
On the Climb
On nearly any climb, be it in a far range or your local Eiger, the ways to move swiftly are similar. In most cases they boil down to competence and confidence and the are often heavily influenced by the condition of the route. Until real familiarity is achieved, the beginner may consider the following paths to swiftness.
Manage the rope(s) efficiently ! Few things slow the novice climber more than tangled ropes. Learn effective rope management on rock-climbs, and don't get messy on an alpine route. If you're using the double-rope technique, or a 100m rope, two different colors of rope (or a bi-color 100m rope) are best for keeping things straight. Simul-climb whenever it's possible, and lead with the 100m rope as often as is safe (the better climbers you are, the more you can use the 100m length). Use the boot-axe belay or direct belay whenever you can. Avoid aid sections; look for an alternative (unless, of course, you specifically want to do some aid). Haul the leader's pack before the second climber comes up. This way if the pack snags somewhere, the second can un-snag it, rather than someone having to go down and get it. Stay on snow and ice as much as possible. These are generally faster to climb than rock - the protection (e.g. screws and pickets) are often faster to place than rock protection, you're unlikely to encounter sections requiring aid, and many times snow can be simul-climbed.
As mentioned previously, you want to keep moving in the mountains. Just as critically, you have to balance speed with safety. It's little good to try to make time by tackling a hard, dangerous pitch with the 100-meter rope; double it. Don't skimp on belay set-up time. Next to your climbing talent, the belay is the one thing which may keep you attached to the rock. The same applies to placing protection on the lead; you don't place as much as in a normal rock-climb, but if you see a good potential placement you DO NOT pass by it in the interest of speed. Where you get speed is in simul-climbing and climbing normally belayed pitches with a minimum of fuss and maximum efficiency.
Remember, there are only a few really good reasons to stop; if you get in over your head and need to consider your situation, if someone is hurt, or if you need to bivouac. Otherwise, keep rolling. Don't rush, just get into a routine, adjust as the terrain dictates and move smoothly upwards.
Lightweight Packing
Lightweight packing is a skill learned and learned again and always tailored to the climber's particular needs. Keep in mind the fallacy of any certain 'ten essentials' and figure out what you need for the route you are attempting. Pack these items and nothing more. Do you need a sleeping bag? Can you stand a night with just an extra sweater and a bivvy bag, or would that be foolish in this situation? Do you really need a stove for that single night bivvy, or could you treat yourself to an extra ration of chocolate in compensation? Do you need more than one picket? Do you need any snow protection? Can you dig a snow cave with just your axes and helmets? Do you really need a shovel? Can you take along an effectively weightless space blanket rather than an emergency bivvy-bag, or would this be idiotic? With everything laid out, question each piece of equipment and discuss weight-saving with your partner, and get into a routine before you head off on the approach trail: "Helmet? check. Pitons? check. Rope? check...", etc. It sounds ridiculous, but it's far better than the untold horror of arriving at the base of a great climb, only to find you (or your partner) forgot the rope !
Making decisions on hardware only becomes easy with experience, and over time you'll likely find yourself taking less and less hardware as you become more confident. For the novice, consider the points made about protection equipment in Part I of this book.
There are a number of items used in big-wall aid climbing which, in the interest in speed and simplicity, can be left behind for alpine routes with appreciable but not extended sections of aid. Consider forgetting : fifi-hooks, extra 'cleaner-bieners' (for removing stubborn placements), nut-extraction tools (nail out the piece with your hammer and a Lost Arrow), two pairs of aiders per person (you can get away with one pair per person for shorter aid sections), 1" wide aiders (use 1/2" wide aiders with wider foot-loops; wearing plastic boots these are not painful), kneepads (if you anticipate a lot of aid, perhaps duct-tape your knees - see the section on Equipment Modification), ready-made haul bags (carry hardware to the climb outside your packs and fill them with bivvy-gear and food, and use a lightweight, improvised haul-bag - see the section on Equipment Modification), safety glasses (wear goggles if necessary), piton hammers (use a third tool or ice hammer), two mechanical ascenders per person (use one mechanical ascender and one kreutzklem made of webbing), daisy chains (know how to shorten and adjust slings with twisting and clove-hitches; pre-sewn daisy chains are a luxury), hauling devices (DO carry a pulley or two, but don't bother with specialized hauling machines, as your load should be rather light compared to big-wall ascents).
Similarly, some things you might not take on a standard wall-climb but will find useful on an alpine wall, or a big-wall climbed in winter or otherwise foul conditions : fingerless wool or pile/Capilene gloves, belayer's coat (down, or better yet, synthetic with rainproof shell; two may not be needed if you are equipped for warm bivouacs), c.20m of 7mm rappel-sling cord, and more long slings than on a 'normal' big wall (slings 2-3' long will be more versatile than shorter slings).

PART III
ALPINE CLIMBING SITUATIONS
Coping with Situations in a Two-Person Team

INTRODUCTION

Once you have the basic skills and equipment, and have properly considered the variables of your climb, you set off to distant mountains and enter the arena of adventure. In most cases the basic skills of rock, ice and snow ascent will suffice, up-graded in difficulty as your tastes are altered by experience and learning.
In the following chapters I discuss some common (and not so common) alpine climbing situations and suggests methods of dealing with them in a two-person team. The operative word is suggest. Equipment, mentality and conditions will dictate that you will have to improvise on occasion. Following the nature of life, the alpinist must adapt or die.

CHAPTER 7
GLACIERS AND CREVASSES: SMALL-PARTY CONCERNS

Glaciers : Basic Facts and Features
Alpinists, naturally, often find themselves on glaciers. Some alpine routes climb glaciers almost exclusively, while others require that you move on glaciers during the approach, or descent, or even somewhere in the midst of the climb. Whatever the case, you need to remember first and foremost that glaciers are large masses of moving ice. The bulk of the glacier moves slowly, even imperceptibly, but some portions of it will move very quickly indeed, and can be deadly. Even the apparently motionless features of a glacier, particularly the crevasses and seracs, are potentially deadly.
Figure XX illustrates some glaciated mountain terrain and points out some of the features you will encounter. Study this carefully and apply the theory to photos of real glaciers; ask yourself "where would I go ? where would I NOT go ?". For more on glaciers, see Andy Selter's book Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue and The Mountaineer's Mountaineering : Freedom of the Hills. Don't go onto a glacier ignorant of what areas to avoid.
Moving on Glaciers :
Equipment, Roping Up and Movement
You'll nearly always need to be roped-up for glacier travel. Even in summer, when the snow-bridges have melted and you think you can see all of the crevasses, there may be remnant snow-bridges that conceal deadly slots. Roping up for glacier travel is easy and there is no acceptable reason to avoid it to save time; you're dealing with your life here. On a glacier where the crevasses all seem to be apparent, with snow bridges mostly melted away, it's easy to just cruise along unroped, and keep telling yourselves that you can rope up if things get hairy. Bad idea. Rope up immediately. It's one thing to hang from a nice taut rope after punching through (or just slipping near the edge of a crevasse). It's quite another to find yourself wedged at the bottom of a crevasse because you were too impatient - or just plain stupid - to rope up.
The first thing to do is to decide how many people will be on a single rope. In many cases the number is two, as technical alpine climbing teams are usually very small, compared to, say, mountaineering teams. The basic principle is that each climber should have, coiled on their chest, a length of rope long enough to reach the other climber should the other fall into a crevasse and need first aid and/or rescue. For example, with two climbers on a 165' (50m) rope, each climber should coil about 60 feet of rope around their chest. This leaves about 50 feet between the climbers. Now, if one climber falls in a crevasse, the other has just more than enough rope to set an anchor , run the rope forward and drop it to the other climber, or help haul them out. The principle is illustrated in Fig. XX. On a 330' (100m) rope, the two climbers should each coil about 120' of rope, leaving about 90' between them.
Rigging for glacier travel is illustrated in Figure XX. Here, I am most interested in the standard alpine situation where two people are traveling on a single rope.
To rope up for two-person glacier travel you first tie into the end of the rope as for climbing. Now measure out the appropriate length of rope (see above) and coil this not too tightly and not too loosely around your chest. It's handy to remember how many arm-lengths of rope you take to get the right amount coiled so that you don't have to think about it every time you rope up for a glacier. You want to be able to get the coil off quickly if needed (so do it after you put on your pack), but you don't want the loops to be clumsy and tangling in gear. Now, draw a bight of rope up through the coil, tie an overhand knot with the bight and clip this into your central harness carabiener. See Figure XX for clarity. Now run the rope that leads to your partner up your chest and through a carabiener clipped to a shoulder-strap of your backpack. This may prevent you from toppling over backwards if you fall into a crevasse, ending up hanging on the rope. Each climber should carry three pulleys, for the crevasse rescue techniques described below. You don't necessarily have to carry heavy-duty rock-climbing pulleys, though; for the loads of crevasse rescue, the compact and almost weightless plastic tubular pulleys, which are just rings wide enough to accept a rope, slid onto an oval carabiener (not a 'd' carabiener, though), are adequate unless you're climbing with King Kong. Some pulleys are illustrated in Fig. XX. Finally, take three prussiks or kreutzklem knots, or ascending devices if you're carrying them, and attach two them to the rope in front of you, and clip them to your harness with slings as shown in Figure XX. This is done so that if you do fall in a crevasse and can't climb out, you don't have to bother with finding your ascenders and getting them on the rope, perhaps dropping them in the process. This is also important for setting up a rescue pulley-system (see below), so don't neglect to do it. The third ascender or knot should be clipped somewhere so that it is readily at hand. Some climbers like to put a knot a few feet up the rope leading to the other climber as shown in Figure XX. This is so that if the other climber falls in, one can set an anchor and clip straight into the rope. At first this seems a reasonable precaution and you may be tempted to do it. Don't. If you end up having to do a rescue with a pulley system, this will make things extremely difficult. This will become clear in the section below describing the set-up of rescue-pulley systems. Finally, clip your rescue anchors (screws or otherwise - see below) to your harness or pack such that you can get to them with one hand; in a rescue situation this will be critical. A two-person team with limited anchors for rescue would do well to have the second climber carrying these anchors. Figure XX shows a fully-rigged Glacial Pedestrian ready to go for a two-person stroll.
It's a good idea to memorize the glacier roping system as it does take some time to rig and you may be tempted to avoid it because of this. At home, set up the system with precisely the right slings and prussiks required, so that it all fits well. Now mark the right slings with a dot of color, or whatever, so that on the glacier you don't have to figure out all the lengths again.
Once you're roped and ready to start off, let the leader head out until the rope is reasonably taut between you. This is critical. If there's much slack between the two of you and one climber falls in, the fall will generate a shock-load to the other climber, probably throwing them off balance and perhaps dragging them into the crevasse if they can't self-arrest or stop themselves some other way. A hideous way to go. On the other hand, if the rope is taut and one person falls in, the shock to the other climber may be minimal. You may not even be thrown off balance, especially if you're keeping a close eye on the leader as they cross suspect areas (sometimes you'll belay them across, see below). Also, a lack of slack will prevent the hapless faller from going in too far, whereas a length of slack between the two of you will allow them to fall much further down the crevasse. Clearly, you must keep the slack to a minimum. These principles are illustrated in Figure XX.
Luckily, keeping the rope taut is pretty straight-forward in most terrain, but requires close attention. The leader and second must carefully adjust their speeds. If the leader wants to go around an obstacle such as a crevasse, and the second just keeps plodding on straight ahead, slack will build up. The leader may go a bit faster to compensate, but it's safer for the second to just keep an eye on the leader and slow down to wait for the rope to go taut before following. Of course, the leader must keep an eye on the second as well, adjusting their speed accordingly. Basically, keep your eyes open and keep the rope taut. Next to avoiding crevasses altogether (which is difficult on a glacier !) this is definitely your best defense against taking bad crevasse falls.
Sometimes it will be necessary to belay the leader as they cross suspect features. Personally, I like to belay (and be belayed !) even on the most sturdy-looking bridges, even if it's only with a boot-axe belay (see the section on Belaying in Snow). I just assume that all crevasse bridges are suspect and act accordingly. On the strongest-looking bridges (these often are very sturdy, sometimes even contacting ledges below), as mentioned, a simple belay may suffice. On anything less sturdy, place at least one anchor. Many times on a glacier you can get a picket or dead-man into the surface, and this may be enough, especially if you keep a taut belay. However, if the bridge is very wide, and the fall potentially long, you should consider digging beneath the snow to find suitable ice for a couple of screws. Place these anchors as described in the section on Ice : Anchors, and make sure they are secure and tilted a bit further back from the perpendicular (about 20 degrees or so) than usual. You may want to belay directly through the anchor slings; if the leader goes down you may as well be prepared to instantly anchor them off and get straight into assessing the situation.
Once the anchors are set the leader can head out, so long as their ascender devices are on the rope, ready to go. KEEP A SUPER-CLOSE EYE ON THE BELAY - allow just enough slack so that the leader can keep moving. The leader can cross any way their courage and intelligence deem appropriate. You may walk, jump, crawl, slither or swim across. On the most suspect bridges (having selected the best of the suspect bridges), keep your weight as evenly distributed as possible, as if crossing a lake covered with a skin of ice. Once on the other side, try to swallow your heart, set up a belay, and bring across your partner. Mission completed. Only twenty more to go ! Figure XX illustrates the main points to keep in mind when belaying across snow-bridges. Finally, you have to decide whether you want the heavier climber to lead or to take up the rear and belay. If they're appreciably heavier, bringing up the rear is a good job for them as this will help them with holding a fall. On the other hand, you may want to have the gorilla lead, with some assurance that, if they've made it across a bridge, it'll probably hold your weight (assuming the bridge hasn't been damaged by their crossing). Best to trade off jobs as the situation demands.
Keeping your weight distributed across the greatest surface area is most effectively done with skis or snow-shoes. Though many times these are used in alpine approaches, their use is way beyond what I can discuss here. If you're heading out for a major adventure, consider these excellent aids to snow-travel, and learn to use them effectively. If you've never even used skis, don't be intimidated. It's a lot easier to learn to ski than you may think.
If you're descending an appreciable slope, a leader-fall into a crevasse can be very serious as it may drag the second climber right in, totally unable to fight the drag even with a sturdy self-arrest. In this situation, consider belaying on the steep sections. Things are a bit better if you're ascending a slope and the leader goes in, as the increased friction of the rope on the lip of the glacier may reduce the potential shock. On the way down a slope, if the second falls in, the shock shouldn't be too bad. If the second falls in, though, as the leader is ascending, the situation can be critical for the reason described above. Belay as the situation and common sense dictate.
On 'slippery' glaciers where there is little or no snow to self-arrest in when trying to catch a fall, be particularly safe. Self-arrest on bare ice, as mentioned in the section on Snow : Descending, can be extremely difficult, if not impossible.
Despite all the precautions, you or your partner will probably end up down a crevasse, some day, hanging on the rope or standing on a ledge of ice or snow. In this case, you'll need to get out, and quickly.
Crevasses : Two-Person Rescue Technique
A lone rescuer facing the task of getting their partner out of a crevasse is facing some major problems, and again I must state that it is extremely important to stay out of the crevasses in the first place.
The lone rescuer will soon find that it's a ridiculous proposal to haul their partner out of a crevasse with bare hands. They will need to increase their mechanical efficiency with a pulley system. This is described below, and must be memorized, not just read once over. You need to be able to set this up quickly and in poor conditions. It's a good idea to practice it a few times on a trip to a glacier some day. You may want to do a climb, but you'll be thankful you met the real problems in a practice session when you eventually find yourself out there, your partner unconscious on the rope and you very, very alone.
If You're the One Down the Crevasse
So, there you are, down a crevasse. The first thing to do is to try to contact your partner and establish the situation. Shout. If they reply, tell them what your situation is. Perhaps they just need to lower you a few feet to a ledge (test it - it might collapse !) from which you may be able to walk laterally out of the crevasse, or at least take your weight off the rope as they anchor it. Perhaps you can just get your ice tools and start climbing up the wall of the crevasse. This is the best-case scenario. If you feel OK and can easily climb out, just start up, then stop after a few feet, if possible, when you can take the strain off the rope. The sooner you get your weight off the rope, the sooner you can relieve your partner, who may be having big problems. Once you do get your weight off the rope, wait a bit and try to contact your partner again. If this takes some time, consider placing a screw or your tools in the crevasse wall and hanging for a bit. If you can, wait until your partner tells you they have an anchor in, and that you're on belay, before you continue up. If you fall again, perhaps while they're setting up some anchors, you compound the problem. If you hear nothing after a while, get going and climb out. As you ascend the ice, take particular care not to chop the rope with one of your tools. If your partner is not able to belay you up, tie in every 20' or so as the rope goes slack beneath you.
If you're hanging free on the rope but there is no ledge close by, and the crevasse walls are unclimbable, for whatever reason, determine whether you can get out by ascending the line you're hanging on. Establish contact with your partner. If they tell you they've got some anchors in, get going. You should already have your ascenders on the rope; get onto them and start up. Follow the procedures described in the section on Techniques for Ascending Fixed Ropes. If you can't establish contact with your partner you have to decide whether to get started immediately, as you may do if they had you on belay (which should now be locked). On the other hand, if you were not on belay, your partner is probably lying flat on the glacier, dug in the self-arrest position, trying desperately to get some anchors in. You may be afraid that if you start up right away, your inevitable bouncing may load the rope in jerks, making your partner's task even harder. This is unlikely, however, unless you're really going to go wild. The rope running over the lip of the crevasse should minimize the shocks. Only if the lip it is bare ice is it likely that they'll feel anything except a terrible steady, pull. Now, if your partner has managed to get in an anchor rather quickly, you may be able to start off right away in complete safety. The importance of communication becomes clear here, but, alas, it is not always possible. Use your head and consider the circumstances on the Upper World. Get out of the crevasse as soon as you can. It will be cold down there, perhaps wet as well, and you don't need ice water dripping down your neck to compound your problems.
Moving along the scale of seriousness, you may find that you've been injured in the fall and can't get yourself out of the crevasse under your own power. Again, try to contact your partner as soon as possible, and let them know you need to be hauled out. If you can get in touch with them, try to help them as much as possible; you may be in a nasty spot, but your partner's not exactly having a tea-party up there. Let them know if the lip of the crevasse above is unstable, so that they're extra-careful if they approach the edge. Tell them if there's a bulge somewhere above that you might snag on while you're being hauled up. Tell them as much about your situation as you can. Whether you can get in touch with them or not, your next task is to assess your injuries and, if critical, treat them as best you can. To say this may be difficult is an understatement, but you should at least make yourself aware of your condition. Next, if you're not already warmly dressed, get on a hat, gloves and a jacket or sweater. You may be awaiting rescue for a long time (or it may just seem like a long time, but the distinction is probably not your greatest concern), and you should protect yourself against hypothermia and frozen hands. Getting dressed may be difficult, but you must try. Shrug off your backpack and let it hang on the rope at your harness (it should already be clipped in if you're properly rigged). Get out the clothes you need, and perhaps have a bite to eat (nothing too elaborate, though!). You can then clip the pack to a more comfortable position, such as under your harness, as described in the section on Techniques for Ascending Fixed Ropes. Now, warmed, or at least insulated, and perhaps fed, make yourself as comfortable as possible. Get a chest-harness rigged up, pronto. This will save you precious energy and free your hands. Try to relax and try to help your partner in any way you can. Once you're being hauled up, and you reach the lip of the crevasse, try to help with heaving yourself over the top. Chop away ice or snow if you can, clearing a path to be dragged up so as to reduce resistance. This is often the most strenuous part of the rescue and can put a great strain on the anchors; you are wedged up against the lip and your partner has to haul harder and harder to get you over the edge.
Finally, if you're unconscious at the end of a crevasse fall, things are going to be very serious. Here we must switch scenes to the climber up on the surface.
If You're the One On the Surface
So, your partner is down a crevasse. If you were alert, with a good, taut rope, they may not be too far down, and they may be able to haul themselves right up. You have reason to rejoice - this is the best-case scenario. If the fall was more serious, and you had to self-arrest, or are standing, but being dragged down to the glacier surface by the strain (which is a pretty awful feeling), the first thing to do is to get in some anchors and get that strain off of your harness. If you're in the self-arrest position, keep one hand on the axe and, using the other hand, try to get in some anchors. This is difficult and precarious, but you have no choice. In good, deep snow your best bet may be pickets, or dead-men, though deadmen are more difficult to place with just one hand. It's a good idea to have anchors ready to unclip from your harness with one hand before you set off across a glacier. The best thing you can do in bad snow is hack away at the surface snow and sink a reasonable number of good ice-screws (two at least, and preferably three or four). Do this as described in the section on Ice : Anchors, with the exception that the angle of the screws should be greater than usual; tilt them about 35-40 degrees from perpendicular, away from the load. These anchors are going to be under a lot of strain if you have to start hauling. It is critical that you equalize the anchors with sling or rope, somehow. Again, have these ready to unclip with one hand. See Fig. XX for an illustration showing a climber setting anchors one-handed in a rescue situation.
Now that your anchors are set, you can tie off the rope to them. Clip the anchor sling to the ascenders (knot or mechanical) you already had rigged to the rope by unclipping them from your harness and into the anchor sling. They should lock and take the strain from your harness, and you can slowly ease off of your self-arrest and let the rope take the strain. See Figure XX.
Now that the rope is tied off and you're free of the strain, get in touch with your partner. If it's possible to shout to them without moving, stay put. If they can climb up without help, just wait for them to unweight the rope and then belay them up with the rope they fell in on, once a bit of slack is available. If they can't get out on their own power, you'll have to go and get them. Untie and then uncoil the rope around your chest, fix a new ascender knot to it as a safety as shown in Figure XX, and approach the lip of the crevasse. Be careful; you don't want to fall in as well, and you'd be surprised how often this happens during rescues. Have a look down there. Scope the situation. How does your partner look ? Try to contact them again. If there's no response, place an ice axe or other pad on the edge of the crevasse, under the rope from which your partner is hanging. This should stop the rope from digging too deeply into the lip of the crevasse, which can be a major problem. Now, go back to the anchors and place one or two more equalized anchors as back-ups; you're going to be loading this rig for a long time. Now you have to set up a pulley rescue system. The previous steps are illustrated in Fig. XX.
If your partner appears to be seriously injured, or unconscious, you've got a real job on your hands. You must rappel off of the anchors you've just set, get down to your partner and put a hat on them to keep them warm, remove their pack, and fix a chest-harness so they don't hang upside down. See Figure XX. This may seem complicated but it is not as bad as it seems. The main thing will be to reinforce your anchors, as now two of you will be hanging on them and you'll be coming back up the rope in a few minutes. When rapping down to your partner, use a safety knot or ascender to hang from as you set up your partner with the appropriate slings; if you come off the rap-rope the situation will enter the realm disaster.
Set-Up and Use of a Rescue System for a Single Rescuer
Being alone, you're going to need a very efficient pulley system to get your partner out of the crevasse. The normal 'Z' pulley system is ok when there are more than one rescuer, but in this book I'm more concerned with the situation in which a lone rescuer has to retrieve a partner. The 'Z' system is illustrated in Fig. XX, but don't be tempted to use it because it looks easier and less gear-consuming than the more efficient single-rescuer system. It will rarely work and you will have wasted priceless time and energy.
The 'ZxC' system is the best system for single-rescuer use. Practice the set-up at home until you can do it by memory, then try it out on a practice session on a glacier. This is one of the skills you really don't want to try to remember when it comes time to use one and your partner is hurt, perhaps badly. Look at the pictures, read the text, then set it up yourself. Memorize this system and make sure your partner memorizes it as well.
OK, you're committed to a major episode here; recall your training sessions and get to it. Follow the text with Figure XX. First, clip a carabiener through the anchor sling and clip your pulley to this carabiener. Now take one of your ascender devices or knots and go a few feet down the rope. Attach the ascender or knot to the loaded rope (you haven't done anything with the slack rope yet), and to this clip a carabiener with a pulley. Now feed the slack rope it through the pulley you've just attached to the ascender knot. Go back up to the main anchors. Feed the bight of rope formed just above the ascender knot, which is holding the strain, and the slack rope, through a belay device directly under the anchor pulley. Figure XX illustrates this clearly. Now take the slack rope, which should be fed through the non-anchor pulley on the load rope, and tie it off onto the anchors, pulling tight so that it starts to lock the non-anchor ascender or knot on the loaded rope. Now take more of the slack rope and feed it through another pulley attached to another ascender knot, this one attached to the rope you just tightened. You are ready to haul. The whole set-up and sequence is illustrated in Fig. XX.
Now you can begin hauling. Grab the slack line and pull. You may find it easier to knot it, clip it to your harness and, using your crampons for purchase, pull like an ox. Whatever the situation, you pull away from the crevasse and the pulleys go into action, hauling your partner up slowly but surely. After each haul the ascenders or knots should grip the rope and keep your partner from slipping back down. If they don't, and they are knots, you'll have to re-tie them so that they are tighter. This is an excellent reason to carry a pair of mechanical ascenders on glacial climbs. Once your partner nears the lip you may have to chop away some ice or snow there, if they're not capable of doing it, so that they can come up over the edge with a minimum of resistance. Take care not to knock your padding into the crevasse when you do this (you can just anchor it with an ice axe or picket or something; see Fig. XX). Also be careful with your axe and crampons around that taut rope; it'll part very easily under such strain. Finally, if this is an extended operation and it's hot or sunny, cover the anchors with snow to keep them from melting the snow or ice and pulling out before the job is completed.
The 'ZxC' system requires three pulleys and three ascender knots or devices, but it is too important to neglect when the standard alpine team of two are traveling on a glacier. It is obviously a major operation, and the best thing - once again - is to stay out of crevasses in the first place. Of course this is not always possible, and I cannot stress enough how important it is to memorize this system and carry the required gear; to find out just how critical it is, go out to a glacier some day and try hauling your partner out of a crevasse with a standard 'Z' system. You'll soon be carrying three pulley-rings and three ascender knots on all your two-person glacial excursion.
A final note; if you find the prussik to be unsatisfactory during your glacier training sessions, consider using the autoblock, illustrated in Figure XX, at the main pulley/anchor station, as shown in Figure XX. The autoblock tends to be easier to use, depending on the snow conditions and temperature.

CHAPTER 8
SIMUL-CLIMBING

At some time on your route you may find that the terrain is rather easy to climb and that you feel comfortable without a fixed belay. The method to employ here is simul-climbing. Properly employed, simul-climbing can keeping you moving and speeding your ascent considerably.
Simul-climbing is a method of movement in which climbers are moving at the same time; the leader is placing protection and clipping the rope through it as usual, and the second is removing the protection when she arrives at the placement. There is no fixed 'belay' as such, as the second is not anchored to the rock and is climbing at the same time as the leader. However, if the leader were to fall (which should be extremely unlikely, as you must only simul-climb when the terrain is so easy that falling is a remote possibility) the protection between her and the second is called upon to catch the fall. The body-weight of the second is going to take some of the shock, though she will probably be jerked up and off of the rock anyway, and leader and second will likely end up hanging for a few moments (until they get straightened out) on the protection which caught the leader. This is the worst-case scenario, however. As mentioned, falling should be a remote possibility when simul-climbing.
You must judge for yourself what you mean by 'easy' terrain. For one climber this may mean 5.10 rock, for another it may mean 5.5 rock; because of this potential disparity it is critical for the two climbers to agree that the terrain is 'easy'. Once you have agreed to simul-climb, it's a good idea to let the better climber (on the terrain in question) lead, reducing the chance of falling. This assumes that you and your partner have the guts to say 'Ok, I'll go first, I'm not as good as you are on rock/ice/whatever.'. If you can't handle this sort of confession, or are so competitive that you can't bear to 'give in', I suggest you drop climbing (at least alpine climbing) and think seriously about your life.
Let's assume you're at a belay and, looking upwards (or downwards, as the case may be), you and your partner have decided to simul-climb. The ''stronger' climber (on this particular terrain) leads off. For starters, you may as well keep them on belay while they run out most of the rope. There's no reason not to do so, and a belay is always better than no belay. When you see that most of the rope is out, just take your anchors and start climbing. You have two choices with regards to the amount of slack between yourself and the leader. You may want to keep it rather taut, so that they are almost, but not quite, tugging you along. This is good when the terrain is more difficult (but still easy enough for simul-climbing); if the leader does slip the reduced slack will keep the impact on you as low as possible. On the other hand, you may find that you're more comfortable with a bit of slack trailing between your feet, so that when you stop to take out the protection your leader has placed you won't be instantly tugged upward by the leader continuing upward (remember, though: if you're on such difficult rock that a little tug can pull you off, it would probably be better to belay).
The leader continues upward. They use natural or artificial protection as necessary. They must keep in mind that you are down below, having to stop occasionally to get out the gear they've placed. Therefore, it's best if they occasionally look back to see where you are in relation to the next piece. They should also take note of any particularly difficult sections, which may slow the second, and stop to belay off a nut or piton while you overcome that section. You then continue on as usual.
When the leader is down to a few pieces of protection, they should stop, set up a few anchors and belay second as she comes up. When the second arrives she simply hands over the gear to the leader, the two decide whether the next section is 'simul-climbable', and then proceed as required.
Depending on the seriousness of the consequences of a fall, you may wish to shorten the rope between the climbers. To do this, coil the rope as you would for glacier travel (see the section on Glacier Travel). Again, keep the rope taut.
You will gather that the most important aspect of simul-climbing is a very close understanding of your partner's abilities and thinking. How will he cope with that steep bit ? Will that knifeblade be difficult to remove, and will he need extra time there ? Can I climb rock as well as she can ? After a few climbs with the same partner you'll begin to get a feel for how they climb. For simul-climbing this is often the most useful information you can have; for this reason, you might find it unnerving to simul-climb with a stranger (I won't do it), and I advise against it. However, because of the dangerous nature of alpine climbing I find that the 'turnover rate' of partners is pretty low compared to, say, sport-climbers. Hell, anyone (well, nearly anyone) can belay me as I claw up a super-protected sport route, but I'm not going on a two-day alpine ordeal with someone I don't know.

CHAPTER 9
FIXED ROPE RIGGING AND USE

In alpine climbing there are a few times when fixed ropes may be useful or necessary. There may come a time when you'll employ the 'Yosemite Method', in which the leader climbs the pitch, fixes the rope, and the second ascends the rope, rather than climbing the pitch. This is sometimes done where speed is of the essence and ascending the line would be faster than climbing the pitch. Some consider this to be 'cheating', but it is entirely up to you to decide the ethic you want to pursue on any individual climb.
Another - rather gloomier - instance in which you may need to fix a line is during a crevasse rescue (see section on Crevasses for more details). Finally, you may employ fixed lines in 'siege-climbing', in which you ascend and descend the ropes a number of times during a climb, ferrying loads up to higher camps, etc. In expedition-style climbing you may bring special rope for fixing (called static rope), which doesn't stretch as much as a normal climbing rope and must not be used as a lead rope. This type of climbing is beyond the realm of this book, though the principles are outlined here.
After rappelling and descents, I view the use of fixed ropes as one of the greatest potentially dangerous tactics on alpine routes. After using a few fixed lines of your own, you may find that you agree. In all fixed rope situations remember the following: no sharp edges, bombproof (BERT-treated) anchors and self-protecting ascent and descent methods. These are detailed below.
Fixing a Rope
Fixing a rope (or ropes) means securing one or both ends so that it can be used for support while ascending or descending. A rappel line is fixed, in a sense, because you use it to support your descent. However, you plan to retrieve the rope once you have finished the descent. A truly fixed rope is one that is tied off to anchors.
Basically, to fix a rope, you place a number of anchors (see section on Anchors), as the situation demands, back up your anchors as far as hardware and common sense allow, test the anchors, and tie off the rope, preferably with a figure-eight on a bight (this will be the easiest knot to untie after it has been loaded). Viola, a the rope is fixed. Keep a few things in mind. First, the anchors should be at least as good as those for a belay, or better if you can manage it. Balance out bombproof anchors with a judicious and intelligent use of hardware, as described in the sections on Anchors. Second, the rope must not run over sharp rock or ice projections; as you will be placing your entire weight, and more, on the rope, it may easily fray or be cut. Before fixing a rope consider whether, when weight is applied, the rope will be cut on some part of the pitch lower down, beneath the fixing station. You may have to rappel down and pad the dangerous area. If it is impossible to avoid sharp projections, try to pad the rope with a mitten (doubled over), a spare sweater, a sleeping mat, or anything which will keep the rope from being cut when weight is applied. If you're leading and know you need to fix a rope when you reach the belay, try to pad these areas as you go up. This, of course, is more difficult in practice than in theory, but it is critical. A rope under body weight is very easy to cut, and may be badly damaged even if stressed 'only' over a rounded edge. Remember to somehow secure the padding so that rope movement won't push it aside, and if you're seconding and won't be using the fixed line again, remember to grab the padding (once you're above it !) and give it back to your partner.
Sometimes you may need to fix a rope which, because of the terrain, can't drop straight from the anchor down to the previous belay. A traverse may be needed somewhere along the line. You need to anchor the rope such that there is, somewhere, a line leading down to the previous belay. The principle is illustrated in Figure XX. You cannot simply clip the fixing rope through the anchors at the joint, however. It must be tied off at the joint anchor. Although the ascending climber will be able to get up to the joint in safety, when they switch their ascender to the traverse ropes they'll weight the traverse line, pull the rope they've just ascended up through the joint anchors, and go for a tremendous pendulum, ending up hanging below the upper anchors. They may want a word with you. Prevent this chain of potential problems by tying off the rope at the joint. The principle is illustrated in Figure XX. If you're on the lead, and fixing the lead rope (e.g. not a spare line, as when climbing with a 100m single rope), you can't do this because you won't really be belayed after tying off the lead line. In this case the second will probably go for something of a pendulum, though you can lessen this with a piece of protection between the joint and your belay, as shown in Figure XX.
Whatever the case, when you tie off the fixing rope to the joint anchors keep in mind that, if using mechanical ascenders, your partner will be in real danger as they cross the diagonal traverse line. If they have any wits, and a prussik or a sling to make a kreutzklem, they will secure themselves to the diagonal rope with these. They will also attach a carabiener to a mechanical ascender, as shown in Figure XX, to aid in keeping the device on the rope. Still, if they can't take these precautions for some reason (and remember, in alpine adventures the unexpected is the standard), you need to leave a little slack in the traversing line so they can get the mechanical ascender onto the rope at a safe angle. This may be difficult or impossible to arrange. Do your best. Whatever the case, anyone ascending a traversing line from a joint-anchor to the main anchors should - on arriving at the joint - clip into the traverse line with a locking carabiener (or doubled reversed carabieners) on a sling to their harness. This way if they come off of the rope, for whatever reason, they have a chance of being caught by the carabieners when they reach the joint anchors. See Figure XX. After clipping straight into the traverse line, the climber must remember to unclip the tie-in which they have (diligently, we hope) been tying in every 20' or so in the manner befitting a safe Fixed Line Climber. They must untie the knot so that it doesn't get snagged later.
If a traversing fixed line with one or more joints is only being ascended once, and you plan to bring it up straight after it is ascended, the procedure for the second climber is a bit different. They will arrive at the joint and not clip a sling into the traversing line (it would be useless as they are going to remove the joint anchors). They will, however, stay tied into the rope with their 20' interval tie-in knot. They will now have the tricky job of getting onto the traversing line, past the joint anchors, and then removing the joint anchors without swinging wildly away. It would help to stand on a sky-hook or some other 'instant ledge', with the fixed line not weighted, while doing this. They can then disassemble the anchors, untie the joint knot and then get their weight back onto the traversing section of the fixed line. They'll still be going into a pendulum, but at least there won't be any knots below to snag when pulling up the rope. The principle is illustrated in Fig. XX, and will have to be modified according to the situation.
Fixed ropes left for any period before returning to ascend them should be viewed with extreme caution. The anchors and/or the rope may have been damaged, perhaps by rockfall or rodents (rodents often chew on ropes and slings). Test the fixed line with a firm tug (watch out for falling debris), then body weight (be sure you're secured to anchors first) then with a few good bounces. Now hang on the line for a period be absolutely sure. How long you test the line will probably depend on how scared you are. If you ascend and come up to a section of damaged rope, get above it as fast as possible, collect your wits, and then pull up a few feet of rope and tie a knot in the rope so that the damaged section is no longer taking any weight. Remember such knots when hauling up the line for use later on; they can snag and cause major problems, but there's not much you can do except be careful.
If you're fixing a rope with ice anchors (e.g. screws), remember that prolonged strain may melt the screws out of the ice. To prevent this, cover the screws with snow (or whatever is available) and inform your partner that moving quickly would be a good idea.
Devices and Knots for Ascending Fixed Rope
You can ascend a fixed line with number of devices and methods. Basically, there are mechanical ascenders , ascending knots and improvised methods. These means are described below, and in Technique in Ascending a Fixed Rope their use is discussed.
Mechanical Ascenders
These come in a variety of styles, though all work on the same principle. The ascender device is attached to the rope and a mechanism employed such that a downward pull on the ascender locks it fast to the rope, while an upward push unlocks the device and allows it to move freely on the rope. Figure XX illustrates the principle and a number of common ascending devices. It is probably unimportant which type you buy, though some hold better on icy, frozen ropes, which is what you will eventually encounter in alpine conditions. Select your (expensive) ascenders carefully.
Mechanical ascenders are very easy to use, but they are heavy compared to prussiks or other ascender knots. Some models reduce weight by lacking a handle, which seems a good compromise for alpine climbing. I suggest you consider carrying one mechanical ascender and using it in conjunction with another method (see below) to keep weight down. It all depends on what you plan to do. If you plan to climb via the 'Yosemite Method' (see above), take a pair of ascenders. If you plan to use the ascenders only in emergency, such for crevasse rescue (as when crossing badly crevassed terrain), you might consider carrying just one mechanical ascender and one ascending knot cord per person (plus the appropriate glacier travel gear - see below).
Most mechanical ascenders are rather dangerous to use on ropes which are angled from vertical. In such a case the ascender may twist off the rope, and you will go with it. Figure XX illustrates the principle, and the use of a carabiener to clip the bottom of the device to the rope, which may help to prevent this. For this reason, ascending knots are safer when you're anticipating an angled rope. If you're ascending and see that the rope is angled above, consider an ascender knot as a backup, or to completely replace the mechanical ascender as you pass the angled section. This occurs often when you are following overhanging pitches or fixed ropes which are taut between anchors which are diagonal from one another. See the section on Ascending : Seconding for the appropriate notes and illustrations.
Ascending Knots
There are a number of types of ascending knots, though the two most common are the prussik and the kreutzklem. The prussik (named after it's inventor, the European doctor-climber Hans Prussik) is a loop of cord wrapped around the fixed rope, then through itself, and clipped with a carabiener. This is much easier to understand in a picture - refer to Fig. XX, and practice at home before you need to use it (this goes for all knots). A pair of prussiks can take you up a rope very nicely, even if the rope is wet, but when it is frozen or icy, there is a major problem: in the short time that you spend hanging on one prussik and loosening and pushing up the other, snow or ice can freeze on the weighted knot, making it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to push up the rope. There are two solutions and a preventative to this problem.
The preventative is to wrap the prussik around both a carabiener and the rope (for clarity see Fig. XX), producing a Bachmann ascender. This puts a gap between the rope and some of the prussik cord, and if they are frozen together you can work the carabiener back and forth to break the ice and make it easier to move the knot.
One alternative to the prussik is the kreutzklem knot, which, I find, is much better than the prussik. Once when trying to get out of a crevasse I used a prussik and a kreutzklem together. The prussik, to my despair, froze and locked each time I weighted it and pushed the kreutzklem up the rope. However, even though it was snowing and there was a cascade of snow being dumped on me - and the knots- every time I moved, the kreutzklem never froze and I was able to loosen it and slide it up the rope very easily each time. When I heaved myself out of the crevasse, exhausted and with numb hands (I had to remove my shell gloves to work the prussik, but not the kreutzklem) I vowed that I would never again use the prussik in icy, wet conditions.
The kreutzklem (or kreutzklem) is very simple to tie. Using a loop of webbing (or cord, though webbing will not freeze as easily) wrap it around the rope as shown in Fig. XX. Clip in with a sling. You're ready to go. I will not try to describe this in words - it is much easier to understand in a picture, and I urge you to practice it at home. There is not much to add here. Experiment at home, on rock, and in a crevasse. You'll soon decide what system you like best.
Improvised Methods for Ascending a Fixed Rope
This section may as well be titled 'Desperate Measures'. In short, if you find yourself without slings, prussiks, ascending devices, and in need of ascending (or descending) a fixed rope, the first thing to do is to put on your thinking cap. What bit of equipment can you modify to make progress ? One thing you can do is improvise a belay device (preferably a Sticht plate) to be used, as illustrated in Fig. XX, as an ascender. If you're really desperate, you may try the old James Bond trick of using your boot-laces as prussiks. If you only have one ascender knot or device, you can still get up the rope by attaching it to your harness and chest-sling, hanging on it, then tying a foot-loop in the rope below, standing in it (thus removing weight from the ascender knot or device), and then pushing the ascender/knot up, and repeating the procedure. Figure XX illustrates the principle. Remember to untie the foot-loop knots when you switch so that they don't get snagged when you finally want to pull up the rope. Also remember to tie in to the rope at 20' intervals, following the procedures described earlier. You can use the foot-loop method if there's some rope hanging below you before you begin, but if you're hanging on the end of the rope obviously there will be precious little slack to make the first foot-loop after you've pushed the ascender up for the first time. Do not give up hope. Look for any feature of the terrain on which you might be able to use as support as you go up, or at least get started. Often when ascending a fixed line it's easy to forget all about the ice or snow or whatever underfoot and rely on the rope alone, but this need not be the case. Check out every possibility. You may be able to save some energy by hanging on an ice tool, or kicking in a crampon for a moment (be careful, using ice tools, not to chop the rope you're hanging from !). If you're totally wiped out and can do nothing, you may be in big trouble (as was Joe Simpson in Touching The Void, an excellent read and very instructive). Your partner may have to set up a haul system to pull you up (see the section on Crevasse Rescue).
If you find yourself in a situation where you have only prussiks and no spare carabieners to make a Bachmann knot, and the knots are freezing to the rope, you can at least thaw them out with a puff of hot air before trying to work them free. I've had to do this, and it does work; but I could have avoided it entirely if I just had another sling, or a spare carabiener...
If you've used your only two slings to make the ascender knots, and need to get your feet onto slings attached to them, you might use your ice axes, particularly if they have leashes. Figure XX illustrates the principle.
Technique for Ascending Fixed Rope
Using fixed-rope ascenders (mechanical or knotted) is straight-forward. See Fig. XX for an illustration of the principles. Place the ascenders on the rope. Clip into the upper ascender with your main harness carabiener. Always improvise a chest harness, clipped to the upper ascender, to keep your upper body from toppling back wards and forwards. This will save you from great misery and preserve strength (try ascending a rope some day without a chest harness, and you'll see what I mean; you end up spending far too much energy on your biceps and abdominal). Now, hanging on the upper ascender, you slide the lower ascender (which you are clipped to with two slings - one to your harness, one to your boot) up the rope to within an inch or so of the upper ascender. You now weight the lower ascender (normally by standing in the loop attached to it; you may want to make this big enough for two feet), then slide the upper one up the rope as you stand, transfer you weight to the upper ascender and then repeat the process. Every 20' or so, tie into the rope hanging below you so that if you come off the ascenders, you don't go all the way to the end of the rope. All of this is rather simpler than it may seem, as you'll find out in practice.
If it's light, you may want to keep your backpack on and just get up the rope. If it's too heavy and causing problems, though, just take if off (careful - don't drop it) and clip it to your harness or the loop of rope below you, as shown in Figure XX.
As you ascend, do not forget to tie into the rope every 20'. This will prevent you from taking a long fall in the event that you somehow come off of your ascenders. If your clip-in carabiener gets pressed up against a hard surface it is possible for your clip-in sling to twist or work it's way out of the carabiener; remember, keep both ascenders clipped to your harness one way or another, and tie in at intervals. When tying in, you simply tie a figure-eight knot and clip it to your central harness carabiener(s). Then and only then do you remove the previous knot rope tie-in knot from the central harness carabiener, untie it (so it won't snag when you pull up the rope), and proceed. If you unclip from the rope tie-in knot first, and then clip in the new knot, you end up spending a few seconds unprotected, which is an unnecessary risk. See Fig. XX for a clear illustration of the principles here.
Descending Fixed Rope
For rappelling, see the appropriate sections on Descending: Rock/Ice/Snow.
There are a few situations in which you may find yourself descending a fixed line, but not rappelling it. Basically, this means either down-climbing the terrain while being attached to the rope or using ascenders 'backwards' to go down, rather than up, the rope.
If you're down-climbing there are a number of things to consider. How are you to the fixed rope ? Perhaps the best way is with the prussik or the kreutzklem. With one of these secured to the rope, and attached by a sling to your harness, you can make your way down the terrain with one hand on rock (or axe on ice or snow) and one hand on the rope, sliding the knot down with you. If you slip, the knot will lock (hopefully), and you will be caught. If possible, your partner, above, may as well belay you with a spare rope as you go down; this super-safe and you'll appreciate it. When you've reached the end of the rope, anchor yourself and belay your partner, as they down-climb, with the spare rope you were belayed on (you may have even placed a few pieces of protection as you descended, effectively 'leading' downwards, though this may be time-consuming overkill if the terrain is easy enough to down-climb; do as the terrain and safety dictate).
If you're not being belayed, remember to occasionally pull up 20' of rope and tie in, then drop the loop and down climb. Once you reach the end of the loop, tie in a new knot and then unclip and untie the first knot. Essentially your are doing the same thing as when tying in at intervals when ascending a fixed rope: protecting yourself from a longer fall should you come loose from your ascent/safety device (see section above on Ascending and Fig. XX). However you descend, stay alert to the possibility of dislodging rocks or other debris which may hit your partner and/or the rope and anchors below. All of these principles are illustrated in Fig. XX, which is, again, very useful in combination with the text.

CHAPTER 10
BIVOUACS

The idea of the bivouac (or bivvy) is simple enough; it gets dark, you find a ledge, cave or whatever, lay out your gear and get some sleep. If you've planned the bivouac in advance, this might be enjoyable and a rewarding end to a day of hard work; it is also possible that the bivouac can be the most horrific of experiences, and many climbers avoid them like the plague...
Consider the route; can you reasonably imagine finishing it without a bivouac ? Would it be best to bring a bivvy-bag, just to be safe, or would you trade that extra pound of weight for swiftness ? It's up to you and your partner and the conditions.
The Sleeping System
The sleeping system you choose to take on a c limb will depend on the nature of the climb, the weather and the amount of time you plan to spend on the climb. The basic piece of gear is the sleeping bag. The type of bag you buy, and it's 'warmth' should be based on your own experience; some people a re going to be cold in even the most mammoth bags. Others will be warm in a lighter bag. Your personal physiology is the critical factor here. Think back to camping tips or climbs in the past and try to assess how 'warm' you sleep.
Sleeping Bags, Bivvy-Bags and Vapor-Barrier Liners
The main choice in sleeping bags is between synthetic and down for insulation. Down has a warmer weight-to-warmth ratio than any other sleeping-bag insulator, though some synthetics are closing the gap these days. Down also compacts better than most synthetic bags, taking up less room in your small alpine pack. This is something to consider carefully, as is the weight of your bag. If dry, down is an excellent lightweight insulator. If wet, however, down is virtually useless. The main consideration when climbing with a down bag is to keep it dry. Some manufacturers make down bags with a waterproof-breathable shell so that the chances of them getting wet from the outside (e.g. rain, wet snow, a spilled mug of tea) are reduced. Research your choice carefully and pick something which balances light weight with warmth and durability.
Most of the time you use a sleeping-bay, you will also use a bivvy bag, a large, theoretically waterproof-breathable overbag into which your sleeping bag slides. This is fair enough, but down can also get wet from inside if you crawl into the bag with damp clothes, or simply sweat a lot at night. This can be manageable for a short climb, but over a period of a week or more, the down can get increasingly damp and start to lost its' properties of insulation. On many alpine climbs you'll be unable to change clothes and will indeed get into the bag while wearing damp or wet long-johns, unless you go naked (which may be preferable, though the long-johns may not dry out as well hanging on a line).
To keep the down from getting wet from the inside, some climbers use a vapor barrier liner (or VBL). Essentially, this is a thin nylon envelope the size of your bag which you put inside the bag as a liner. You crawl into this and your sweat stays inside it, rather than dampening the down. If I could give you advice on this, I would, but it seems to be individual preference; some find the VBL to be clammy and uncomfortable. In my experience, it is worth the slight discomfort; it's better than getting your bag wet. The VBL adds only a few ounces to your sleeping system, but also can prevent real problems and will normally increases the 'warmth' of you bag by about 10oF.
In sum, the best way to prevent your down bag from getting wet is to shield the down from both outer and inner sources of moisture; a VBL inside and a bivvy-bag outside is the most secure system.
If you get a synthetic bag, keep it dry as well. A bivvy-bag will be the best shield here, but a VBL is overkill with synthetic bags. Some salespeople may suggest that you can reduce the size of a stuffed synthetic bag with a compression sack. I find this an unnecessary extra piece of 'techno-hype'. If you really need to save that much room in an alpine backpack (and you might - remember this when buying), think about a down bag, or stuff the synthetic bag with maniacal zeal.
When you stuff your sleeping bag, you ma y be able to save some room in your pack by putting extra socks or gloves or whatever down into the 'core' of your bag. Just don't go overboard, and don't put anything sharp inside. If the stuff-sack of your sleeping bag is not waterproof, and your pack is riddled with holes or otherwise liable to let in water, consider putting the stuffed bag into very thin, almost weightless plastic bag. This may save your from much misery. Better yet, see the suggestion below on stuffing your sleeping bag and bivvy bag at the same time.
More on Bivouac Bags
In selecting a bivvy-bag keep in mind the weight and the room it will take up in you pack (though it's often possible to stuff a bivvy-bag into a sack smaller than the one it comes supplied with; i f you do this, be careful not to damage your bivvy-bag by puncturing it with it's own zipper-pulls). Your main choice in bivvy-bags will be between those which are completely constructed of a waterproof-breathable and those with a waterproof-breathable upper and a coated nylon 'bathtub' floor. See Figure XX. The coated-nylon models are usually a little heavier, but are also usually substantially cheaper. Also, if you're using a ground mat (see below), you'll generally be shielded by it from any real wetness. It is useful to buy a 'long-model' bivvy bag so that you can put your boot liners, camera, gloves and wet clothes inside to keep them warm and dry. If you buy a bag which is not seam-sealed with tape, you're defeating the purpose; rain will get in through the stitching and you'll get wet. Finally, get a bivvy bag with a simple and efficient entry-slot and breathing hole. Try the bag out in the store. I suggest you buy a long, seam-taped half-nylon bivvy-bag. Though this will be heavier than other bivvy bags (though cheaper, probably), it is a basic piece of equipment that you should not skimp on.
Whatever type of bag you buy, you might be tempted to stow the bivvy-bag and the sleeping bag separately in your pack. This may be accept able if you're not too concerned with volume. If you're fighting for room in your pack, though, or are expecting really nasty conditions, it's a good idea to put the bivvy bag over your sleeping bag before you stuff the sleeping bag in it's sack. This c an save room in your pack (stuff hard !) and, if you unpack the system in a downpour (you will someday), it keeps your bag dry until you slip inside.
Insulating Mat
The insulating mat is a critical component of the sleeping system. This is a mat used somewhat like a mattress, though it's primary function is insulation, not comfort. The sleeping mat puts a barrier between you and the cold snow, ice or rock you're sleeping on.
Believe it or not, the variety of insulating mats on the market has also ballooned to demented proportions. There are ridged mats, inflatable mats, self-inflating mats and everything in-between. Luckily, the choice here is simple and obvious. In CLIMBING #110 (October 1988) Jonathan Waterman tested an unbelievable range of 27 different sleeping insulator systems. In short, he found that the most effective insulator was a stack of two Blue-Lite thermal pads. As far as alpine-weight pads go (say, less than 18oz), second to this came the Thermarest Ultralight, an inflatable mat weighing 16oz. I consider this too heavy and bulky for all but the coldest alpine climbs. I strongly suggest a single, regular-length Blue-Lite pad. This weighs only 8oz and insulates you for an 'increase in comfort' of c.11oF. The longer specimen can go down past your shins, but you can just rest your feet on your rope or backpack to solve this problem. For colder climbs (and I mean really cold, as in Alaska), take along two Blue-Lite pads.
You can stow the insulation mat rolled up and across the top of your pack, but this tends to get in the way and snag on ropes and slings. I suggest rolling it as tightly as possible, securing it with a couple of hefty rubber-bands (or tied loops of inner-tube rubber) and then strapping it to the center of your pack. This keeps it out of the way and can provide a shock-absorber in a fall (hey, you can always hope !). The inner-tube rings can be operated with frozen fingers much more readily than any strap or buckle, and are more reliable than velcro, especially if you're squeezing up a chimney.
If you're interested in reducing weight, consider taking just a 1-foot square piece of insulating mat that you can sit on in an emergency, and use your pack and rope to insulate t he rest of your body from the snow.
In summary, then, the sleeping system should keep you insulated from the ground and keep you and your sleeping bag warm and dry. Whatever system you devise, make sure it fulfills these requirements.
Bivouac Sites
Before you can settle in for your forty winks you need to take some precautions in selecting a bivvy spot and making it safe. These are detailed below.
Bivouac Site Safety and Rigging
The first thing you must consider in selecting a bivouac spot is safety. It's no good settling on a nice big ledge only to get hit by rockfall or an avalanche while a safer but less comfortable spot may be elsewhere. Keep moving until you find a bivvy spot sheltered from whatever objective dangers exist. Keep in mind features of the mountain which are above you but are not visible in the dark. When you find a bivvy site, consider the integrity of the entire site - is it just a giant rock flake which may come completely off the face, or is it perhaps a blob of snow which looks nice until you notice that it's a cornice hanging out over space...
Find a place where you can get some good anchors in, and tie in as soon as you can. Except on the largest ledges, you should stay tied in at all times, even in your sleeping-bag. You may find it useful to set up a 'handrail' rope which you can hang your equipment on or grab if needed. Be sure that the anchors are secure against 'wide-angle' loads, and that if one anchor goes, your gear doesn't slide off the rope and into the blackness below. This can be done by making a loop of the 'handrail' and backing it up with a solid backup anchor rigged for a downward load. The principles are shown in Fig. XX.
Remember that the very crest of a ridge may be exposed to tremendous winds; it's better to take shelter a bit down the flank if you can. On a buttress, keep an eye out for chimneys which may be large enough to accommodate you - but beware these features if storm is approaching a s they can turn into a river of ice water - or perhaps snow - very quickly ending your rest.
Two solutions to the possibility of your tumbling off your perch (or incurring frostbite in sensitive areas) while just out answering the call of nature; first, stay tied to the anchors. Second, wait till light so you can see what you're doing or - better yet - use a piss-bottle (any old plastic bottle or bag will do) and don't even go outside.
Bivouac Site Modification and Construction
If a ledge is large enough, just lay out your sleeping system and try to get some Z's. Stay tied in to the anchors. Wear your harness inside your sleeping bag and just thread your anchor rope from your harness up through the breathing hole. If it is raining, water will 'wick' 'down the rope and soak you at the crotch! Try to prevent this by tying a couple of knots in the rope (to retard the wicking) between yourself and the anchors. Also, try to arrange the rope so that it drops down to a point lower than you before it enters the breathing hole...this way, it will be harder for water to wick up the rope to you. These are important points -- don't get soaked this way!
If you're on a snow ledge, you may need to make some modifications. If you have a shovel, great. If not, you can use a helmet with great effect, clearing away huge volumes of snow. You can also pack snow into hollows if you need to; remember that the snow will probably compact quite hard under your weight, and that a small lump will soon become the horn of the Devil himself, gouging your back all night if you don't smooth it out first. If the ledge is of ice, you're in for a big cutting job. Try to find a natural ice feature to lessen your work. Use your adze and hammer to hack out a ledge. Any time you work on a bivvy-site, consider paring your clothes down to the minimum while working. Cutting ledges is often warm, sweaty work and you don't want to soak y our clothes.
If you find a cave, remember the possibility of lightning danger. Figure XX illustrates this point, and Appendix A outlines general lightning dangers.
If you can't find ledge you may be able to cut an ice or snow cave from the surface. Stay tied in to some anchors while you do this. Snow caves take some energy to build, but can be very warm indeed once the door is blocked or the stove is going. Remember that if you use a stove inside a shelter (tent, snow cave, whatever ) you must make a vent to prevent yourself from being poisoned by fumes.
If you have a shovel, you've got a real advantage for shaping a site. If you don't a helmet may be used in softer snow, supplemented with your axes. On lower-angled slopes with plenty of snow, you can cut straight in so that your fit side-by-side with your partner. Where there is less snow you may have to tunnel sideways so you fit head-to-toe. Try to make the roof high enough so that you can at least sit up. Trying to cook and eat and get dressed lying flat on your back is tiring and can be dangerously clumsy. The entrance to the hole can be packed with snow if the wind is coming in, or you can use a backpack to block the wind. Keep the shovel or other digging instruments inside the cave; if you're trapped inside by heavy snowfall or avalanche, you'll at least have a chance to dig out. Also, poke an axe shaft up through the roof to make a breathing hole, then shove the axe up and out the roof, and leave it in position. If you're buried, you may be able to pull this out, leaving a breathing hole while your dig out. Figure XX illustrates a number of important points in snow-hole construction and design. You will, of course, have to modify everything as the conditions dictate.
If you're on an ice face and have to have a shelter, the best idea is probably to keep going until you can find something better. Hacking a cave or even a ledge out of hard ice is extremely tiring; you'll probably do less work climbing up, rapping down to, or traversing across to some feature which will serve. If you have to hack an ice ledge, take turns and stay tied in while chopping. Better yet, predict these problems and bivouac as soon as you get to the last ledge you can see within the day's climbing.
Hanging, Sitting and Standing Bivouacs
On really technical, steep rock routes you may need to set up a hanging bivouac with a porta-ledge or hammock. Consider carrying a lightweight hammock and fly (or bivvy-bag) on these climbs. If you have to bivvy on a blank alpine wall without a port-ledge or hammock, you're in for an epic. If you're in slings you run the risk of cutting off circulation to your limbs. Improvise some sort of seat from your backpack, or a padded rope; just make sure the blood can flow; this is especially in alpine conditions, where it will be bitterly cold. Some improvised hanging bivouac supports are illustrated in Figure XX.
You may some day be forced to pass a night sitting o n a little perch, or even standing. This should really only happen if you can't fix a rope from your high point so that you can rap down to some feature below, and jumar up in the morning, or if you can't push on to something better above or to the side. You may want to sleep (if it's possible) in shifts so that one of the pair can't fall asleep unexpectedly and load the anchors. If you've got any food, have a bite to eat once in a while (fatty foods will keep you a bit warmer), and perhaps brew up some drinks or just hot water to keep your core temperature up. You can still get in your sleeping bag, even on a standing bivvy, but be careful and stay tied to the anchors.
Of course, in all of these situations, keep in mind and apply the BER T system to your anchors. Get moving at first light; you'll be warmer moving than standing still.
Tents
Some alpine climbs are long enough - and have big enough ledges - to warrant bringing a tent. This is some, not all; the majority of alpine routes climbed (again, the routes done on weekends) are done without a tent. In most cases, you can get up and down the route with less weight in your pack and less hassles at bivvy-time if you don't bother with a tent.
Still, many alpinists own tents because they serve as good 'base-camps' while waiting for a route to 'come into condition' and as a nice shelter to return to after the climb and before the drive home. Though I've spent some days waiting for a route with just a bivvy bag, it's pretty miserable and not worth the savings in weight on the approach trail.
As usual, when you survey the range of tents on the market today, beware the 'techno-hype'. Balance the technology with functional requirements. In my opinion, the most elegant solution has been the Black Diamond Megamid, a simple square fly with a single support pole; the edges are secured, the pole is raised to the desired height and the shelter is complete. There is no floor, but a floor is just one more thing to damage, is more weight and you'll be in you sleeping system 90% of the time anyway, protected from the snow. The Megamid design is lighter and more compact than any other alpine tent, and it costs less. It is probably not as waterproof as the waterproof-breathable designs, but, again, in your sleeping system you should stay dry. The Megamid, properly rigged, is also extremely aerodynamic, shedding wind while other tents shudder around their poles. The waterproof-breathable tents are extremely expensive and I believe they are really most suited for super-alpine work; the Himalaya or other such 'world-class' ranges. If you don't like the Megamid and want a tent, though, consider any of the two-person models which are seam-sealed, easy to set up and take down and are most wind-resistant. If it rains a lot where you plan to climb, keep in mind waterproofness, but watch out for the waterproof-breathable designs which you may think will keep the deluge out; I have seen these fail when the air temperature hovers around 30oF and freezing rain and sleet are coming down, leaving the occupants bedraggled, miserable and cursing their (admittedly very pretty) $600 'shelter'. No doubt, in extremely cold and dry conditions, these are great, but for most of your climbing, I'd say they are an unnecessary expense. Buy a good, small, simple and robust tent, and use your savings to buy ice screws.
A final note on bivouac equipment. If you take it, chances are you will climb with the equipment in the back of your mind, thinking, 'well, I've got bivvy gear, so we don't need to go so fast...". In other words, if you take it, you'll use it. I suggest resisting the temptation. Find out how much you can climb without a bivouac; how long can you go and keep y our wits ? Remember, the longer you stay on the mountain, the greater the possibility for problems. It seems, at first, insane to say that you should spend as little time climbing as possible, but with the numerous objective dangers of alpine climbing, this is what it boils down to. If you want to bivvy, of course, do it and relish the experience, then weight the experience against trying to climb the route without a bivouac. Choose for yourself.

CHAPTER 11
RESCUING AN IMMOBILIZED PARTNER

For a two-person party one of the worst scenarios is that of one climber becoming immobilized (unconscious or debilitated by injury) while actually climbing a roped pitch. The leader or second is climbing and takes a serious fall, or is hit by falling debris, and ends up hanging inert on the end of the rope. The belayer is left - mortified, probably - with a locked belay device. Having spent some time calling and hoping for their friend to respond, or at least regain consciousness, the belayer ends up wondering what to do next and realizing the gravity of the situation. Of course, circumstances will differ on each climb, and some rescues will be rather easy. Others - decidedly - won't be so simple.
Whatever the case, the main questions the belayer will be asking themselves - perhaps simultaneously and frantically - will probably be 'is my partner OK,', 'just how good are these anchors ?'' and 'how much rope and equipment do I have, and is it enough to get them to my position ?'. These are the essential questions. It will become acutely obvious, in the following pages, why in alpine climbing the maxim the leader must not fall simply must be maintained.
If the Leader is Immobilized
In the best case there's enough rope for the belayer to lower the leader down so that they can be treated. If there's enough rope but not enough ledge (as at a hanging belay) you may be wise to attach an ascender mechanism or knot to the active lead rope, as shown in Figure XX, so that once the leader is at the belay you can lock the rope and get to work. There is little you can do about the anchor on which the leader is hanging except hope that it'll hold until you can anchor the leader to the belay. Lower the leader, lock the rope you're lowering them on when they arrive at your position, then clip the leader to the anchors and immediately assess back injury. To do this you need to know something about back injury, and for this you need to learn via some first aid course. See the section on Injuries and Illness.
On overhanging terrain you may have to lasso the leader with a spare rope, if it's available (or linked slings, aiders, whatever works), and pull them in to your position. Managing this while lowering the leader will be tricky, so it's best to lock the active rope when the leader is just above your position, hook them with the lasso, then draw them in as you lower them again. If you lower them past your position (for whatever reason) you're going to have to haul them up, which will be difficult.
If the leader has fallen past your belay and is hanging below you, use the procedures suggested the next pages for If the Second is Immobilized.
If the rope is paid out past the half-way mark (meaning you don't have enough rope to lower the leader to your position) you are in big trouble.
Tie off the lead rope and start thinking. Is it possible to aid-climb up to the leader's position, perhaps leap-frogging your limited gear ? If the leader was aiding at least you'll be able to use their placements. You may have to climb up to the leader, self-belaying with an ascender device or knot on the lead rope (though it would do little good in a fall - think about it), and set up a new anchor station near the leader. To do this you would have to get some anchors from the leader's rack, place them and then anchor yourself and the leader to the new belay. After dealing with first aid, you could use the lead rope (now slack because the leader is hanging on the new anchors) to rappel to the lower belay station. You could then retrieve these anchors, climb or jumar back up the pitch, reinforce the anchors, and think about what to do next. Moving the anchors from your previous belay station to the leader's position is precarious but necessary in this awful situation; staying where you are while the leader is hanging unconscious above is pointless. If there's no way to get to your leader, you have a major problem and will have to do as the terrain allows.
If the Second is Immobilized
After the belay is tied off with a hitch as shown in Figure XX, the first thing to do is review your anchors; it's little good to start a rescue and have the whole system rip out under hauling loads. Back everything up and apply the BERT system.
If you do have some spare rope (that is, enough to rappel or lower down to your partner) you have to decide whether it's better to rig a haul system right away and get to work, or to descend to your partner to rig some other system (invoking the varied dangers of a rappel). The choice will be based on the condition of your partner. If they need immediate medical attention (this will be difficult to determine from your position) you must go down to them immediately. If their life is not in immediate danger it's probably better to set up a haul system immediately and get them off the anchors and onto your belay stance where you can treat them more effectively than while hanging on a rope.
Hauling With the Aid of Your Partner
The best case is that in which your injured partner can help with the rescue, and you have enough rope to lower a loop to them to set up a hauling system as shown in Figure XX. Haul away. Once your partner is safely clipped in to the belay, administer first aid.
If you have enough rope to reach your partner from your stance, but not enough to lower a loop as shown in Figure XX, you may as well let them be and set up a system as for hauling a haul bag (described below). Reassure your partner that you're working as fast (and safely) as you can, and do so.
Hauling Without the Aid of Your Partner
If your partner is unconscious or so badly injured that they can do nothing to help in the rescue, you are in for some work.
If you don't have any extra rope (e.g. the rope or ropes are more than half-way paid out), whether your partner can help or not, you'll have to set up a haul system as you would for a haul-bag. Hopefully you will have a pulley or two (remember, the small pulley rings are light and easy to carry; you don't always have to have a 'normal' pulley) and an ascender knot or device, and can set up the system as shown in Figure XX. Otherwise, improvise. Remember to check for the rope running over a sharp edge.
If you do have enough rope to set up the rig in Figure XX, but your partner can't help you with the rescue , you must first try to set up some separate anchors for your rappel, as you will be bouncing down and then ascending up again in a few minutes. Now, get a pulley and some ascender knots or devices (so you can get back up the rope), take the proper rappel cautions, and go down to your partner. Assess their injuries and attach a chest-harness if it's appropriate to keep them from flipping over (they may be inverted already). Arrange the loop of rope such that it can be used as shown in Figure XX (if you have a pulley, all the better), and then swarm back up to your belay station. Now haul up your partner and administer first aid.
All of the previous are desperate measures for a desperate situation. Let's hope you never have to use them. Memorize them so that you can if you do.

CHAPTER 12
INJURIES AND ILLNESS

Because nothing would be more tragic or indefensible than letting a partner succumb to serious but easy-to-treat injuries, you must know how to deal with some basic potential problems. Some say that a little bit of knowledge is dangerous. It's not that the knowledge is dangerous; it's just that people are lazy, or cavalier (or both), and convince themselves that a particular crumb of knowledge is universally applicable. One area where this just does not wash in first aid. Certainly you must be aware of the basic concepts, but just as certainly an aspiring alpinist must take some basic first aid instruction. The American Red Cross offers such courses everywhere and all the time; there are no good excuses here. Take one, and while in it consider how you would apply what you learn in a remote alpine setting. A list of other organizations giving courses is provided in the bibliography.
A few basics are outlined below. They do not 'prepare' you for the mountains. In fact, it's better if they inform you just enough that you are compelled to take proper training (and they should; you are a creature of flesh and bone subject to the bothersome laws of physics, e.g. gravity).
On most climbs, training exercises close to home, you really have little to fear so long as you climb safely and keep in mind a few basic potential problems.
On longer, larger climbs, more isolated from help, you are extending yourself and knowing how to cope with injuries is critical - at least, those injuries treatable on a mountain with whatever type of first aid gear you carry. Consider your personal safety margin, as discussed in the section on The Ten Essentials, and prepare yourself accordingly.
Problems Related To Cold; Frostbite
Low temperatures can freeze the very fluids of your cells. This is frostbite. Rest assured, it is as terrible as it sounds. Freezing most often occurs in the extremities, which are deprived of normal volumes of warming blood as the body conserves this to keep the core temperature up. This is easy enough to understand and protect against (usually) with proper attire. In freezing wind there is little practical defense against frostbite on the nose unless you choose to wear some type of mask; turn your head from the wind as you can. The fingers should be inside gloves, but this isn't much defense if you don't keep the blood moving; at a long, cold belay, or on a long cold lead, occasionally windmill your arms or otherwise work your fingers to keep the blood flowing. The blood in your toes should be OK so long as it is properly insulated (with good boots and socks) and is not prevented from flowing by tight boots, tight crampon straps or too many layers of socks.
If you experience real pain in the extremities when it's below freezing, but there is still a bit of color in the tissue, you must assume frostbite is beginning. Warmth can be found in the blood-rich armpits and crotch, and you can bury your hands or toes here as needed. Gentle, controlled warmth is what you need, not the slapping, maniacal rubbing and pummeling of Hollywood. It is pure torture to rewarm this way, as the blood refills the capillaries and your nerves begin shrieking, but it's better than full-fledged frostbite.
If your fingers or toes go numb and they appear hard and colorless on inspection you may well suspect frostbite has set in. DO NOT REWARM ON THE MOUNTAIN. If you do, and the tissues freeze again, the damage will be far worse. A person can make a descent (albeit clumsy) with numb, frozen digits, but rewarming of real frostbite is usually extremely painful and the climber will have to be helped or carried down - far more dangerous and difficult. Once you reach 'civilization', get to a hospital for proper treatment. In remote and expedition-style situations, you'll have to act accordingly.
Hypothermia
While frostbite effects specific body parts, hypothermia is a much more serious condition which affects the whole body. Hypothermia is the loss of body heat to the extent that performance of bodily functions is impaired. Your body temperature can be lowered in four ways, illustrated in Figure XX. In climbing or other cold-environment activities, heat loss usually occurs by convection - the principle is illustrated in Figure XX. Convection heat loss can quickly - figuratively at least - 'suck' away a human life. You must protect yourself from wind and water, as discussed in the section in The Alpine Layer System.
You must be able to identify the symptoms of hypothermia and treat the patient accordingly.
Though each individual will exhibit different types and degrees of symptoms, hypothermia may be suspected when a person begins to feel cold (perhaps despite appropriate clothing) and has some change of mental attitude that seems odd to their partner. The hypothermic climber may also begin to exhibit clumsiness, slurring speech, failing at simple tasks and generally becoming ineffective at attempts to control their muscles. If things have progressed further (profound hypothermia), the hypothermic person may be found to be indifferent to self or others, ignoring tasks usually a habit. It is possible that they are simply unwilling to do any work, even if they appear to be able to help out; this can complicate diagnosis. If the person's heart rate is lowered, their breathing is shallow and they have stopped shivering, you have a major case on your hands.
Those with mild hypothermia (e.g. have not yet lost all muscular control, are still somewhat functional and rational, though see the exception above) can be helped out rather simply. The key is controlled warming - don't go overboard in panic. Get the person out of the wind and cold. Give them warm (not scalding !) drinks, change their clothes if wet, and get them inside a warm sleeping bag. You may get in with them to provide extra heat, but keep the warm drinks flowing. Warm their abdomen more than their extremities, but keep an eye out for frostbite, which they may be developing as their body heat is already compromised.
A profound hypothermic in a remote alpine setting is a grim proposition. This is because nearly any action by the 'rescuer' can cause the heart to attempt to resume normal activity, which it probably cannot do. The heart begins an irregular rhythm and soon expires. If the hypothermic climber is found to be immobile - due perhaps to being wedged in a crevasse - sudden exertion, rough handling or other stimulus to the heart can kill them as surely as a bullet in the head.
At this point I must stop and ask you to spend the necessary dollars on Hypothermia, Frostbite and other Cold Injuries, edited by J. A. Wilkerson (published by the Mountaineers). If you digest the information in this slim volume you're doing yourself a major service. Do not climb without knowing it's contents upside-down and backwards.
Problems Related to Falling or other Trauma; Damaged Joints and Broken Bones
Falling with a helmet and some decent protection on the lead is usually not physically injurious; the problem is that in alpine climbs decent protection is not always available, and falls may be long and rough. Minor cuts and bruises are just that - minor - and can be left to deal with until you get home. More serious injuries such as sprains should be dealt with by trying to prevent exertion of the injury, again until you get home and can deal with them properly. Broken bones are very serious as they may immobilize the injured person (causing problems in climbing) and can cause internal injuries (even worse).
Broken bones need to be relieved from exertion, perhaps just by avoiding the use of the bone (I assume you'll be trying to get the heck off the mountain in such a case). If the pain is too great try a painkiller from your first aid kit and only then try to immobilize the wound with a splint. A number of splints made with climbing hardware likely to be carried by a light, two-person alpine team are shown in Figure XX. For more professional treatment you must seek training elsewhere.
Shock
A fallen climber may be stunned or otherwise in shock. Depending on the circumstances you may have no choice but to move them before you can determine whether they have a back injury which could be complicated by movement. Just getting them down from their lead, or up to your belay (unless you can safely ascend or descend to them), can be a major operation. A person in shock may be incoherent or unconscious and have a weak but racing heartbeat. They may appear rather pale in the face.
Once you reach your partner you must apply a few basics. Get the person warm with a sleeping bag or jacket or whatever is immediately at hand, but do not overheat them. You must now survey your partner for injuries and treat as necessary. First, look for back injury and weigh the danger of moving them against objective dangers (e.g. rockfall). Next, check that they are breathing; look for any airway blockage such as their tongue, snow, ice or rock. Next look for bleeding and stop it as you can. Remember that the tourniquet is for the most extreme cases only - for serious bleeding learn to use the pressure points and direct pressure. A bandage may be cut from the lining of your clothes.
There is no doubt that alpinism can be dangerous, but you have to remember that no-one is forcing you to stick your neck out. Go out, have a blast, and return safely even if it means quitting early. There's no shame in being alive.
Problems Related to Altitude; Mountain Sickness
Up to about 8,000 to 10,000 feet most human bodies in reasonable physical shape will be able to adapt to the thinner air; but individual variation makes it possible for nearly anybody to get mountain sickness (the body being pushed beyond it's ability to adapt to thin air). The symptoms are usually headache, loss of appetite, nausea and a generally rotten feeling altogether. A preventative is to ascend slowly, giving the body time to adjust, but this is pretty unrealistic for the average person trying to get in a peak or wall over the weekend. If you're such a person the best defense is to be in excellent card-vascular shape; jogging, swimming or hiking can all help put you into condition. If you do get mountain sickness the most effective remedy is to descend to a lower altitude and more air.
There are far worse conditions, such as pulmonary oedema and cerebral oedema, but I cannot discuss these here. Best to read XXXXXXXXXXX by Charles Houston and be prepared if you go to higher altitudes.

APPENDIX A
MOUNTAIN GEOGRAPHY AND WEATHER

Basic Mountain Geography
Figure XX illustrates the generic features of mountains. Various earthly forces will of course modify the specific cases, but the concepts remain the same worldwide. Get to know these features. In planning and route-finding knowing the relationships between features and types of terrain is essential to minimize objective dangers. For example, if you're in a white-out and descending a ridge, it would be better to know that a col can provide a retreat rather than following the ridge the whole way down.
Mountain Weather
One of the themes of alpine climbing is that one must move quickly through 'windows' of good weather. Standard weather forecasts on radio and television are quite good for routes close to home, giving you an overall indication of whether it's worth heading out for the weekend or not. Once in the mountains, however (or in places where you can't get reports), the alpinist must be able to make at least basic weather predictions. These are often based on interpretation of atmospheric conditions - generally, clouds. Figure XX illustrates a number of cloud types and their general meaning. The basics are treated below, and you should consider these within the context of your mountains.
Cumulus clouds forming en masse are bad news, often generating a spine-tingling chill if you're isolated high up.
Cirrus clouds may be seen as a bad sign, bringing precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, hail, whatever) within 24 hours or so.
Mist in the valleys and hollows below you shouldn't be a concern; it's a local phenomenon which portends little regarding major changes.
Lenticular clouds, such as those often capping a peak, indicate high winds, which may be bad enough to stop you in your tracks, and/or could generate windslab avalanche conditions.
Remember that mountain weather can change quickly and, to the puny human, violently. Also remember that mountain weather is basically cyclic; change, change, change, then start over again, or something to that effect. Get to know the cycles of weather in your range.
Keep an eye on the weather as you make your approach. If it's clear and really cold at night, with a spectacular array of stars, perfect; unless it's going to be too hot the next day, increasing possibility of avalanche, rockfall and icefall. This is one reason why sometimes you'll plan to make the climb at night, or part of it anyway.
If it's cloudy, warm and windy on the approach, you'll have to wait a bit (perhaps just keep moving) to see if things clear up later. Clouds effectively 'seal in' warm air, preventing it from escaping upwards (as warm air is wont to do). Heavy cloud, then, translates into more objective danger, preventing rock, ice and snow from freezing solidly into place.
On the climb, keep an eye on the clouds and temperature. Monitor these and consider them in relation to your progress; where will you be when those clouds get here ? On the summit ? On the descent ? Back at your camp ? Ten feet higher than you are now ?
Lightning
You can often continue climbing through poor weather, thinking yourself rather heroic, though you may be blissfully unaware of the danger of lightning. Your best defenses are knowledge and adaptive cunning.
The potential for lightning arrives with clouds (particularly large and heavy ones), in which electrical energy is generated. The charge may become too much for the insulator to handle (the insulator being air) and the energy is liberated in a flash, following the line of least insulating resistance. Sometimes this is upwards, sometimes it is laterally and sometimes it is downwards, which we humans most commonly observe.
If you observe signs of huge power generation in the clouds above - crackling static noises all about you, a corona of light shimmering on ice tools and other hardware, the smell of ionized (charged) air - called ozone - beware. You are in danger. On most climbs you will have little latitude for seeking shelter. Figure XX illustrates some features you may encounter which are, respectively, suicidal, dangerous, decent and relatively safe. Good luck.
If your 'luck' runs out, and someone is struck, you have a job on your hands. Better to have retreated at the signs of bad weather. You will now have to administer first aid; let's hope you spent some time training and know the principles.

APPENDIX B
EQUIPMENT MODIFICATION, INVENTION AND REPAIR

You can extend the life of your expensive clothing and equipment by employing a lot of imagination, a stubborn refusal to replace poorly-made gear and a little thread and duct tape. I have found the tips below to be very useful as a climber living on a realistic budget. I lived for a number of years in England, where the climbers I met were living in what Americans would generally call 'awful' conditions, using 'out-dated' hardware, patched and patched-again clothing and yet doing excellent routes in great style in the most abominable conditions. It was a humbling experience. Don't get hung up on the hardware and all the tricks of the trade. Remember that a lot of great climbs have been done with 'out of date' gear and that it is the person wielding the materiel that does the climbing.
Also consider that if you modify all your gear, adding straps and duct tape and other contrivances ad nauseam, you may easily end up with unnecessary complexity and weight; precisely what you're trying to avoid.
Maintaining Your Ice Tools
Maintain your ice tools with diligence. Inspect picks and the head assembly for hairline cracks. Keep the tools free from rust. Replace tattered slings and lanyards often. To sharpen your tools, you should always use a HAND file. Electric and hand-grinder tools eat away too much metal too quickly, can be difficult to control and can ruin the temper on your tools, making them softer. A hand file allows you to go slowly, plan what you want to do, and remove precisely the amount of metal you want to remove, from exactly where you want to take it. Some ice tools will require sharpening before the first climb (particularly crampons, see below). Your ice picks don't have to be pointed (though it can help for thin-ice and rock hooking), but they do have to be sharp viewed from the working end. See Figure XX for sharpening suggestions. Do not sharpen your crampon points so much that they will actually impale or slice rope or slings if you step on them. You should be able to press on the crampon point pretty hard with your thumb before it really hurts. If it's too sharp, the rope will not roll away under the point, but will be impaled.
I sharpen my pickets as shown if Figure XX. I suspect that this makes them easier to place in really hard snow, but it's hard to verify.
A Cheap Gear Harness and Gear Carrying Tips
I have made a double-gear harness from a pair of old pack straps, some spare perlon (never throw away 'scraps' !), tubular webbing and a few buckles with straps. My partner Chiu has also made a harness like this for technical routes and has modified it (so that it's better than mine, of course) such that it can also be used as a chest harness while jumaring. Figure XX illustrates the basics here. Stitch with nylon webbing - cotton will rot and some day your harness will disintegrate, dropping your nest of hardware to the glacier below. These harnesses have proved their worth on big walls, but in alpine terrain as well; when we went to the Bugaboos for a few days last summer we were able to take small alpine packs rather than monsters. This is because we loaded the packs with food and clothes, I carried a jerry-can of white gas in my hand and we kept the hardware on our racks, just worn under the pack. Figure XX illustrates such use of the harness and backpack. You can also secure a lot of hardware, boots and a rope to your pack, so that the chamber can hold food, clothes and your sleeping system.
It's a drag carrying pickets. If hung on your harness they ceaselessly bang away and can trip you up. For the approach hike you can fix them to the sides of your pack as shown, but then they're difficult to reach if you only have one hand available. The best solution is to rig some shock-cord on the bottom your backpack so that you can slide pickets in and out one-handed. This is shown in Figure XX. Just be careful when leaning on rock not to dislodge a picket and lose it down a slope.
Deadmen are also a drag, but can be rigged as shown in Figure XX so that they stay out of your way. For short periods you can carry them slung around your neck and shoulder (as on a lead, or seconding), but this can be a nightmare if the cable is too tight. Whatever you do, especially in glacier travel, be sure you can get your pickets and deadmen from your rig without taking off your pack.
For most other gear - pulleys, screws, rock protection - you can rig gear loops to your harness as shown in Figure XX. This will save you the money of buying an extra racking kit.
Clothing Modifications
Do yourself a big favor and tie some extra-long mitten-grabbable pulls to your zipper sliders. This will save you precious minutes of groping when it gets dark, cold or both.
O the wonders of duct tape ! It is waterproof, flexible and durable. You can patch holes in your shell clothing with rounded or circular patches of duct tape. The rounded edges tend to snag and work loose less than corners. See Figure XX. You can also reinforce stitching on your knees, elbows or the seat of your bibs with long, 3/4" wide strips of duct tape. These can be particularly good if you tend to do a lot of mixed climbing, and can save you from buying new clothes too often.
Gloves and Socks
After experimenting with a number of glove systems and finding nothing to be waterproof in the wet of the Cascades, one night I finally got out the duct tape and completely covered my Black Diamond gloves (except for the palm and under-sides of the fingers) to form a totally protective seal. This works very well, and I don't seem to sweat any more than usual, or at least I don't notice it if I do. For warmer conditions I wear a pair of Patagonia Bunting gloves inside the shells. These have turned out to be as warm as the Patagonia Capilene gloves, and far more durable. On colder climbs I wear a pair of no-brand wool gloves under the shells. I almost never wear, on a real climb, the expensive pile liners that came with the shells; they're so bulky that they make it very tiring to grip the shaft of my ice tools. I currently have them pressing under a heavy weight, which may compact the pile a bit. Hopefully this will solve the problem.
After a hard season of use your thin liner gloves (perhaps Capilene, bunting or thin pile) can end up rather worse for the wear, with big holes in the fingertips or thumb. Don't write them off, though. A pair of these blown-out gloves can be turned into cold-weather fingerless gloves simply by snipping off the very ends of the fingers (not far down at all- a little too short is much too short). Sew the seam-ends so they don't unravel. Later you can add another pair, sewn onto the first pair, for extra warmth.
Some people use VBL socks, with the same reasoning as VBL's for sleeping systems (see above). You can buy these (best for really serious winter situations) or just use plastic bags. Plastic bags are less durable, but a heck of a lot cheaper than VBL socks.
Backpack Modifications
In trying to buy a light, frill-free alpine pack you might have to sacrifice some good features. You can add these to your taste, however, and decide for yourself how they should be arranged and how heavy they should be. One easy modification is to make the top of the pack by cutting it off and re-attaching it via two or three straps with sliders. This is shown in Figure XX. This is an excellent way to balloon your pack out for longer-than-usual adventures. If your pack has a snow collar, you can just extend it with that. If not, you can very easily sew one to your pack with quadrupled nylon thread, as shown in Figure XX. Another easy modification is to tie easy-to-grab loops to your zipper pulls, as you may do for clothing. I find it useful to sew two daisy-chain lengths of flat webbing to the pack, to which I can clip hardware if I need to. If your pack does not have straps on the side to hold pickets, you can attach tied lengths of inner-tubes or bungee cord (eliminates buckles and sliders) which can firmly hold the pickets on the pack, out of the way. Going really wild, you may want to add a pair of ski-pockets; these are used in conjunction with the picket-holding bungees. All of these possible modifications are shown in Figure XX. Be creative; start with a good pack and add what you require.
Crampon Modifications
The main reason to modify crampons is to make them more secure on your boots. After a couple of seasons you may find that the wearing down of your boot soles effectively 'loosens' your crampons, so you may simply have to tighten them as the manufacturer intended. As for loose nuts, you can secure them with a thin plastic sheet stretched over the bolt before screwing it in, as shown in Figure XX. You can also apply some super-glue to make a really bombproof lock. From personal experience I know that super-glued bolts can stay locked even in sub-zero temperatures and under tremendous, sustained jarring from front-pointing and mixed climbing. If you need to adjust a super-glued bolt during the climb, you're going to regret it, though - so glue with care. At home you can carefully heat the glued joint with a flame to break the bond and re-adjust the bolt as necessary.
Some step-in crampons which attach only with a toe bail and an ankle strap can work their way off of your boot rather more easily than you may expect. To prevent this, I have often secured my crampons with a pair of plastic ski-straps, as shown in Figure XX. This method can make you breathe easier on really horrendous pitches.
Harness Modifications
You may modify your harness by tying a runner-strength sling to the back, to which you can now clip to your anchors. This way a load will come onto your harness and then straight onto the anchors. A rear loop is particularly good for snow belays where you need to be some distance down-slope from your anchors to take full advantage of their potential.
You can save the rear straps of your harness, and the tie-in loop, a lot of wear by wrapping them with duct tape. Be sure that you do not conceal any weaknesses in the system, however, and be sure to check under the duct tape occasionally for new weaknesses in the webbing.
You can sew a pair of axe holsters to your harness, adding only little weight and providing aa good place to stow your axes for rappels or long sections of free-climbing on rock. Use 1" flat sling, nylon thread and see Figure XX. You can place the holsters wherever on your hip you like them, but I suggest that they be situated so you can holster your axes without looking at the holsters.
An Improvised Alpine Haul Bag
For really technical alpine climbs where you expect to do a lot of hauling, a haul bag may be nice but just too bulky and heavy to carry on the approach; it may also be an unnecessary expense and, finally, overkill. You can make a serviceable haul bag out of any large canvas sack equipped with a number of strong grommets as shown in Figure XX. The grommets can be threaded with a long loop of 1/2" webbing tied with a water-knot. A bag such as this can accept two alpine packs, or you can empty their contents into the bag and use the packs or insulation mats to pad the sides. Though the bag may be tattered after a few climbs, it is small enough to fold and place in your pack on the approach, cheap to replace and you don't have to fret about treating it too gently, as you may with a $200 ready-made wall bag. It is not waterproof, however, but if your 'non-wetable' gear is packed in thin plastic bags beforehand, this shouldn't be a problem.
One general tip for really cold, difficult climbs in which the belayer will be forced to sit still for a long time; take a single down or heavy pile jacket on the climb, and let the belayer wear it. Down is good for a 'belayer's coat' as it is light and compressible, and you'll scarcely notice it in your pack. If this seems too much, consider at least a down vest. Only take down, though, if it's too cold to reasonably expect wet snow or rain. If you do encounter these chances are, even with a waterproof down jacket, it will get wet and lose it's value, probably when you switch it from belayer to leader. If it might get wet up there, take an extra-thick pile jacket.

01 111m Lake Serene Mt Index Map

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